Legal issues in information systems are of significant concern because the use of technology and information systems has the potential to raise various legal challenges. These issues encompass a wide range of laws and regulations. Here are some of the key legal issues in information systems:

1. Data privacy and protection: Compliance with data protection regulations is a critical issue. Laws like the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) set strict standards for the handling of personal data.
2. Intellectual property rights

Copyright infringement: Protecting and respecting intellectual property, including software, content, and patents, is essential to avoid legal disputes over copyright infringement.

Software licensing: Compliance with software licensing agreements, whether proprietary or open source, is necessary to avoid legal issues related to software use.

Cybersecurity and data breaches

3. Cybersecurity laws: Various laws and regulations mandate cybersecurity measures to protect against data breaches. Failure to implement these measures can result in legal consequences.

Data breach notification laws: Many jurisdictions require organizations to report data breaches promptly and notify affected individuals.

4. E-commerce and consumer protection

Online sales: Laws governing online commerce, consumer protection, and electronic transactions need to be observed. This includes providing accurate product information, transparent pricing, and dispute resolution processes.

 

RCM BOOKS

CS LEVEL I  INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Dr. Joshua Aura

 

 

First edition 2020

ISBN

All our rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of RCM Publishers.

 

We are grateful to the Kenya Accountants and Secretaries Examination Board for permission to quote from the past examination questions. The suggested solutions in this Revision Kit have been prepared by RCM publishers in conjunction with Regional Centre of Management Studies.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Published by;

RCM Publishers,

Nairobi-Kenya.

Tel; 0719 525 000

Mail; [email protected]

 

 

 

Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. vi

The completion of this undertaking would not have been possible without the participation and assistance of so many people whose names may not be enumerated. Their contributions are sincerely appreciated and gratefully acknowledged. However, the author would like to express his deepest appreciation and indebtness. vi

Above all to the great Almighty God, the author of knowledge and wisdom for his sufficient Grace  vi

CHAPTER 1. 1

INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY. 1

1.2 COMPUTER HARDWARE. 2

1.3 COMPUTER SOFTWARE. 2

1.4 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES AND TOOLS. 2

1.5 INFORMATION SYSTEMS PERSONNEL AND HIERARCHY. 3

1.6      ROLE OF ICT IN BUSINESS ENVIRONMENTS. 3

1.7 INFORMATION CENTRES. 4

1.8 IMPACT OF ICT IN BUSINESS. 4

CHAPTER 2. 6

OVERVIEW OF OPERATING SYSTEMS. 6

2.1 OVERVIEW OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM… 6

2.2 FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM… 6

2.3 TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS. 7

2.4 COMPUTER BOOTING.. 7

2.5 SELECTION AND ACQUISITION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS. 8

CHAPTER 3. 9

AN OVERVIEW OF APPLICATION PACKAGES. 9

3.1 WORD PROCESSING.. 9

3.1.1 FEATURES OF A WORD PROCESSOR. 9

3.1.2 FORMATTING AND EDITING TEXT. 9

3.1.3 CREATING AND FORMATTING TABLES. 10

3.2 SPREADSHEETS. 11

3.2.1 FEATURES OF A SPREADSHEET PROGRAM… 11

3.2.2 FORMATTING AND EDITING SPREADSHEET. 12

3.2.3 FORMULAS. 12

3.2.4 FUNCTIONS; SUM, AVERAGE,MIN, MAX, IPMT, NPV,PMT,PV, VLOOKUP, 12

HLOOKUP, COUNT, IF, SUMIF. 12

3.2.5 CHARTS AND GRAPHS. 12

3.2.6 WORKING WITH PIVOT TABLES. 12

3.2.7 LINKING FORMULAS IN DIFFERENT WORKSHEETS. 13

3.2.8 WHAT IF ANALYSIS; GOAL SEEK AND SOLVER. 13

3.3 PRESENTATION SOFTWARE. 15

3.3.1 FEATURES OF A PRESENTATION PROGRAM… 15

3.3.2 TYPING AND FORMATTING TEXT IN SLIDE. 15

3.3.3 SLIDE SHOW… 16

CHAPTER 4. 18

COMPUTER NETWORKS. 18

4.1 COMPUTER NETWORKS CONCEPTS. 18

4.2 COMPUTER NETWORK HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE. 18

4.3 DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA.. 19

4.4 TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS. 19

4.5 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF NETWORKING.. 20

4.6 CLOUD COMPUTING CONCEPTS, FEATURES AND MODELS. 20

4.7 INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT) 21

CHAPTER 5. 22

THE INTERNET. 22

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNET. 22

5.2 APPLICATIONS OF INTERNET. 22

5.2.1 USING SEARCH ENGINES. 22

5.2.2 E-MAILS. 23

5.2.3 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION.. 23

5.3 INTERNET SERVICES – E-MAILS, WWW, INSTANT MESSAGING.. 23

5.4 INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDERS (ISPS) 24

5.5 APPLICATIONS OF INTERNET. 24

5.6 ONLINE COLLABORATIVE TOOLS; CLOUD SHEETS AND CLOUD DOCUMENTS. 25

5.7 IMPACT OF INTERNET ON SOCIETY. 25

CHAPTER 6. 27

DATA SECURITY. 27

6.1 OVERVIEW OF DATA SECURITY. 27

6.2 THREATS AND CONTROLS. 27

6.3 DATA BACKUP AND RESTORATION PROCEDURES. 28

CHAPTER 7. 29

INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN AN ENTERPRISE. 29

7.1 OVERVIEW OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS. 29

7.2 COMPONENTS OF AN INFORMATION SYSTEM… 29

7.3 TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS. 29

7.4 SYSTEMS IN A FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE. 30

7.5 ENTERPRISE APPLICATIONS AND THE BUSINESS PROCESS INTEGRATION.. 31

CHAPTER 8. 32

E-COMMERCE. 32

8.1 E-COMMERCE CONCEPTS AND FEATURES. 32

8.2 MODELS OF E-COMMERCE. 32

8.3 IMPACT OF THE INTERNET ON BUSINESS. 33

8.4 E-COMMERCE ENABLING SOFTWARE. 33

8.5 BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES IN E-COMMERCE. 34

8.6 E-COMMERCE INFRASTRUCTURE AND PLATFORMS. 34

8.7 E-COMMERCE PAYMENTS METHODS. 35

8.8 CHALLENGES OF E-COMMERCE. 35

8.9 SECURING E-COMMERCE TRANSACTIONS. 35

8.10 M-COMMERCE AND APPLICATIONS. 36

8.11 DIGITAL MARKETING METHODS. 36

CHAPTER 9. 37

MOBILE DEVICES AND APPLICATIONS. 37

9.1 OVERVIEW OF MOBILE COMPUTING.. 37

9.2 TYPES OF MOBILE DEVICES. 37

9.3 USES OF MOBILE DEVICES. 38

9.4 OVERVIEW OF MOBILE APPLICATIONS. 38

9.5 MOBILE BROWSERS. 38

CHAPTER 10. 40

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN.. 40

10.1 ELEMENTS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS. 40

10.2 SYSTEMS THEORY. 40

10.3 TYPES OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS. 41

10.4 PERSONNEL INVOLVED IN SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN.. 41

10.5 SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN CONCEPTS. 42

10.6 SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SDLC) 42

10.6.1 DEFINITION OF SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE. 42

10.6.2 PHASES OF SDLC.. 43

10.6.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SDLC.. 43

10.7 REQUIREMENTS ELICITATION.. 44

10.7.1 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS. 44

10.7.2 NEED FOR REQUIREMENTS GATHERING.. 44

10.7.3 PROCESS FOR REQUIREMENTS GATHERING.. 45

10.7.4 REQUIREMENTS GATHERING TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES. 45

10.7.5 GAP ANALYSIS. 46

10.7.6 PRIORITISATION OF REQUIREMENTS. 46

CHAPTER 11. 47

LEGAL, ETHICAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS. 47

11.1 INFORMATION SYSTEMS ETHICAL AND SOCIAL CONCERNS. 47

11.2 THE MORAL DIMENSION OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS. 47

11.3 THE LEGAL ISSUES IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS. 48

 

 

 

 

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of this undertaking would not have been possible without the participation and assistance of so many people whose names may not be enumerated. Their contributions are sincerely appreciated and gratefully acknowledged. However, the author would like to express his deepest appreciation and indebtness.

 

Above all to the great Almighty God, the author of knowledge and wisdom for his sufficient Grace

 

Unit description

This paper is intended to equip the candidate with knowledge, skills and attitudes that will enable him/her to apply information communication technology effectively in solving business problems, decision making and in adapting to new working environments.

 

Learning outcomes

A candidate who passes this paper should be able to:

• Demonstrate proficiency in decision making using contemporary information communication technology tools
• Use various application packages to solve business issues
• Use data communication networks, the Internet and e-commerce in optimising business opportunities
• Apply data security measures and procedures
• Implement information systems legal, ethical and social issues.

 

Content

1. Introduction to information communication technology (ICT)

1.1 Introduction to information communication technology

1.2 Computer hardware

1.3 Computer software

1.4 Programming languages and tools

1.5 Information systems personnel and hierarchy

1.6 Role of ICT in business environments

1.7 Information centres

1.8 Impact of ICT in business

 

2. Overview of operating systems

2.1 Overview of an operating system

2.2 Functions of an operating system

2.3 Types of operating systems

2.4 Computer booting

2.5 Selection and acquisition of operating systems

 

3. An overview of application packages

3.1 Word processing

3.1.1 Features of a word processor

3.1.2 Formatting and editing text

3.1.3 Creating and formatting tables

3.2 Spreadsheets

3.2.1 Features of a spreadsheet program

3.2.2 Formatting and editing spreadsheet

3.2.3 Formulas

3.2.4 Functions; sum, average,min, max, IPMT, NPV,PMT,PV, VLOOKUP,

HLOOKUP, COUNT, IF, sumif

3.2.5 Charts and graphs

3.2.6 Working with pivot tables

3.2.7 Linking formulas in different worksheets

3.2.8 What if analysis; Goal seek and solver

3.3 Presentation software

3.3.1 Features of a presentation program

3.3.2 Typing and formatting text in slide

3.3.3 Slide show

4. 4. Computer networks

4.1 Computer networks concepts

4.2 Computer network hardware and software

4.3 Data transmission media

4.4 Types of computer networks

4.5 Advantages and limitations of networking

4.6 Cloud computing concepts, features and models

4.7 Internet of things (IoT)

 

5. 5. The Internet

5.1 Introduction to the Internet

5.2 Applications of Internet

5.2.1 Using search engines

5.2.2 E-mails

5.2.3 Electronic communication

5.3 Internet services – e-mails, www, instant messaging

5.4 Internet service providers (ISPs)

5.5 Applications of internet

5.6 Online collaborative tools; cloud sheets and cloud documents

5.7 Impact of internet on society

 

6. Data security

6.1 Overview of data security

6.2 Threats and controls

6.3 Data backup and restoration procedures

 

7. Information systems in an enterprise

7.1 Overview of information systems

7.2 Components of an information system

7.3 Types and characteristics of information systems

7.4 Systems in a functional perspective

7.5 Enterprise applications and the business process integration

 

8. E-Commerce

8.1 e-commerce concepts and features

8.2 Models of e-commerce

8.3 Impact of the internet on business

8.4 E-commerce enabling software

8.5 Business opportunities in e-commerce

8.6 E-commerce infrastructure and platforms

8.7 E-commerce payments methods

8.8 Challenges of e-commerce

8.9 Securing e-commerce transactions

8.10 M-commerce and applications

8.11 Digital marketing methods

 

9. Mobile devices and applications

9.1 Overview of mobile computing

9.2 Types of mobile devices

9.3 Uses of mobile devices

9.4 Overview of mobile applications

9.5 Mobile browsers

 

10. Systems analysis and design

10.1 Elements of information systems

10.2 Systems theory

10.3 Types of information systems

10.4 Personnel involved in systems analysis and design

10.5 Systems analysis and design concepts

10.6 Systems development life cycle (SDLC)

10.6.1 Definition of systems development life cycle

10.6.2 Phases of SDLC

10.6.3 Advantages and disadvantages of SDLC

10.7 Requirements elicitation

1.1.1 Stakeholder analysis

1.1.2 Need for requirements gathering

1.1.3 Process for requirements gathering

1.1.4 Requirements gathering tools and techniques

1.1.5 Gap analysis

10.7.6 Prioritisation of requirements

 

11. Legal, ethical and social issues in information systems

11.1 Information systems ethical and social concerns

11.2 The moral dimension of information systems

11.3 The legal issues in information systems

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

CHAPTER KEY OBJECTIVES

To be able to understand the following;- 1. Introduction to information communication technology 2. Computer hardware 3. Computer software 4. Programming languages and tools 5. Information systems personnel and hierarchy 6. Role of ICT in business environments 7.Information centres 8. Impact of ICT in business

 

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Information and Communications Technology (ICT) is the use of computing and telecommunication technologies, systems and tools to facilitate the way information is created, collected, processed, transmitted and stored. The goal of ICT is to improve access to information and and make human-to-human, human-to-machine and machine-to-machine (M2M) communication easier and more efficient.

Components of ICT:

1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Networking
4. Telecommunications
5. Data storage
6. Cybersecurity
7. Internet of Things (IoT)
8. Cloud computing

 

Application of ICT
1. ICT in entertainment
ICT offers a variety of entertainment and leisure activities and allows for quick access to movies or music that can be easily accessed and you can watch movies and listen to music directly from the Internet.

2. ICT in medical science
   ICT are related to the devices, resources and tools needed to improve the acquisition, retrieval, storage and use of information in health and biomedicine.
3. ICT in finance

Information and communication technology is used daily by financial companies, to trade financial instruments, to report a business’s earnings, and to keep records of personal budgets.
4. ICT in public sector management

Information and communication technology (ICT) is used to facilitate more convenient government services, make the government more transparent and accountable to citizens, promote a more efficient and cost-effective government.

5. ICT in business

ICT tools help companies analyze, store, process and share vast amounts of data and make better use of products and resources. ICT tools also help improve profitability, reduce costs compared to manual tasks and minimize lead times.

 

1.2 COMPUTER HARDWARE

Computer hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system. These components work together to process data and perform various tasks. Computer hardware includes a wide range of devices, each with specific functions.

Components of computer hardware:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2. Motherboard
3. Random Access Memory (RAM)
4. Hard Disk Drive (HDD) and Solid-State Drive (SSD)
5. Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)
6. Power Supply Unit (PSU)
7. Optical drives
8. Input devices
9. Output devices

 

1.3 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Computer software, often simply referred to as “software,” is a collection of programs, data, and instructions that tell a computer how to perform specific tasks or functions. It serves as the bridge between computer hardware and the end user, allowing the hardware to execute commands, manage data, and provide a platform for applications.

Main types of software – systems software and application software.

System software

System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and provides the basic functionality to the users as well as to the other software to operate smoothly.

Types of system software

1. Operating system

1. Language processor

1. Device driver

Features of System Software:

• It is closer to the computer system.

• It is written in a low-level language in general.

• It’s difficult to design and understand.

• It is fast in speed(working speed).

• It is less interactive for the users in comparison to application software

 

Application software

Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much more than the basic operation of the computer is known as application software.

Types of application software

1. general purpose software

1. customized software

1. utility software

 

1.4 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES AND TOOLS

Programming languages and tools are the foundation of software development. They enable developers to write code, create applications, and solve various computational problems. Here’s an overview of some popular programming languages and the tools commonly used in software development:

Programming languages:

1. Python
2. JavaScript
3. Java
4. C++
5. C#:
6. Ruby
7. Swift
8. PHP

Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) and tools:

1. Visual Studio Code (VS Code)
2. PyCharm
3. Eclipse
4. IntelliJ IDEA
5. Xcode
6. Android Studio
7. Visual Studio (VS)
8. NetBeans

 

1.5 INFORMATION SYSTEMS PERSONNEL AND HIERARCHY

Information systems personnel, often organized within an IT department or similar structure, are responsible for managing an organization’s technology and information systems. The personnel within an IT department typically form a hierarchical structure with distinct roles and responsibilities.

An overview of the common hierarchy and roles within an IT department:

1. Chief Information Officer (CIO): The CIO is the highest-ranking executive in the IT department and is responsible for the overall technology strategy and direction of the organization. They work closely with other C-level executives to align technology with business goals and ensure that IT investments support the organization’s mission.
2. Chief Technology Officer (CTO): The CTO focuses on the strategic aspects of technology, innovation, and long-term planning. They are responsible for identifying and implementing new technologies that can give the organization a competitive advantage.
3. IT Director or IT manager: IT directors or managers oversee the daily operations of the IT department. They are responsible for managing IT projects, budgets, and staff. They ensure that the IT infrastructure is reliable, secure, and aligned with the organization’s goals.
4. IT Team Leaders or supervisors: Team leaders or supervisors manage smaller units or teams within the IT department. They are responsible for coordinating the work of their teams, assigning tasks, and ensuring that projects are completed on time and within budget.
5. IT Specialists or Engineers: IT specialists or engineers are experts in specific technology areas, such as network administration, systems administration, database management, cybersecurity, and software development. They are responsible for the hands-on implementation and maintenance of IT systems.
6. Systems administrators: Systems administrators are responsible for maintaining the organization’s server infrastructure. They install, configure, and troubleshoot servers and ensure that they operate efficiently and securely.
7. Network Administrators: Network administrators manage an organization’s network infrastructure. They oversee local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs), ensuring connectivity, security, and performance.
8. Database Administrators (DBAs): DBAs manage databases used by the organization, ensuring data integrity, security, and optimal performance. They create and maintain databases, manage access, and back up data.

 

1.6   ROLE OF ICT IN BUSINESS ENVIRONMENTS

1. Efficiency and productivity: ICT automates repetitive tasks, streamlines processes, and reduces manual labor. This leads to improved efficiency, faster task completion, and increased overall productivity.
2. Customer Relationship Management (CRM): CRM software and systems help businesses manage customer interactions, track leads, and improve customer service. This leads to better customer satisfaction and loyalty.
3. E-commerce: ICT enables businesses to create online marketplaces, sell products and services, and reach a global audience. E-commerce has expanded revenue streams and reduced geographical limitations.
4. Marketing and advertising: Digital marketing, social media, and data analytics enable businesses to target specific customer segments, personalize marketing efforts, and measure the effectiveness of campaigns.
5. Financial management: Accounting software, financial management systems, and online banking streamline financial processes, improve accuracy, and provide real-time financial insights.
6. Human Resource Management (HRM): HRM software automates HR processes, including payroll, recruitment, performance management, and employee records. It simplifies HR tasks and ensures compliance with labor laws.

 

1.7 INFORMATION CENTRES

Information centers, also known as information resource centers or information services centers, are organizations or facilities that are dedicated to collecting, organizing, disseminating, and providing access to information and knowledge resources. These centers serve various purposes, including;

1. Research,
2. Education, and
3. The dissemination of information to specific target audiences.

 

Types of information centers and their roles

1. Libraries: Libraries are perhaps the most well-known type of information center. They collect, catalog, and provide access to books, journals, magazines, multimedia resources, and digital materials. Libraries serve educational institutions, researchers, students, and the general public.
2. Research centers: Research centers focus on specific areas of study or fields. They collect and disseminate research papers, publications, and resources related to their areas of expertise. These centers may be affiliated with academic institutions, government agencies, or private organizations.
3. Museums and cultural institutions: Museums and cultural institutions serve as information centers for art, history, science, and culture. They house collections of artifacts, artworks, and historical documents, offering visitors the opportunity to learn and explore.
4. Information technology centers: These centers provide access to computer resources, software, and training for individuals and businesses. They often support skill development in technology and offer public computing facilities.
5. Government information centers: Government agencies often maintain information centers to provide access to public records, regulations, and government publications. These centers support transparency and public access to government information.
6. Archives: Archives are responsible for preserving historical documents, records, and manuscripts. They offer access to historical records and primary source materials for researchers, historians, and genealogists.
7. Digital libraries: Digital libraries are online information centers that provide access to digital resources, including e-books, research papers, and multimedia content. They offer remote access to a vast collection of materials.

 

1.8 IMPACT OF ICT IN BUSINESS

1. Automation

With the help of information technology, businesses can automate certain processes and tasks including customer support, data entry, and bookkeeping.

2. Artificial intelligence

Information technology has enabled businesses to use Artificial Intelligence (AI) to streamline their operations. AI can analyze data quickly and accurately, making it easier for businesses to make well-informed decisions quickly.

3. Improved productivity

Information technology helps businesses increase their productivity by allowing them to access data quickly and accurately, which can help improve decision-making processes.

4. Improved customer service

Businesses can use AI to handle complex customer queries and provide personalized experiences to customers. This helps build customer loyalty and improves brand reputation.

5. Cloud computing

Cloud computing is another way that information technology has revolutionized businesses. By using cloud-based applications, businesses can store and access data from any device or location.

6. Remote working

Information technology enables businesses to provide their employees with the option of remote working. This can help reduce costs associated with office space and increase productivity by allowing employees to work from anywhere in the world.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 2

OVERVIEW OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

CHAPTER KEY OBJECTIVES

To be able to understand the following;- 1. Overview of an operating system 2. Functions of an operating system 3. Types of operating systems 4. Computer booting 5. Selection and acquisition of operating systems

 

2.1 OVERVIEW OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between computer user and computer hardware. An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.

An operating system is software that enables applications to interact with a computer’s hardware. The software that contains the core components of the operating system is called the kernel.

Operating system handles the following responsibilities:

• It controls all the computer resources.

• It provides valuable services to user programs.

• It coordinates the execution of user programs.

• It provides resources for user programs.

• It provides an interface (virtual machine) to the user.

• It hides the complexity of software.

• It supports multiple execution modes.

• It monitors the execution of user programs to prevent errors.

There are two basic components of an operating system.

1. Shell
2. Kernel

 

Advantages of operating system

• It helps in managing the data present in the device i.e. Memory Management.

• It helps in making the best use of computer hardware.

• It helps in maintaining the security of the device.

• It helps different applications in running them efficiently.

Disadvantages of operating system

• Operating Systems can be difficult for someone to use.

• Some OS are expensive and they require heavy maintenance.

• Operating Systems can come under threat if used by hackers.

 

2.2 FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

1. Processor management:An operating system manages the processor’s work by allocating various jobs to it and ensuring that each process receives enough time from the processor to function properly.
2. Memory management:An operating system manages the allocation and deallocation of the memory to various processes and ensures that the other process does not consume the memory allocated to one process.
3. Device management:There are various input and output devices. An OS controls the working of these input-output devices. It receives the requests from these devices, performs a specific task, and communicates back to the requesting process.
4. File management:An operating system keeps track of information regarding the creation, deletion, transfer, copy, and storage of files in an organized way. It also maintains the integrity of the datastored in these files, including the file directory structure, by protecting against unauthorized access.
5. Security:The operating system provides various techniques which assure the integrity and confidentiality of user data. Following security measures are used to protect user data:

• • Protection against unauthorized access through login.
  • Protection against intrusion by keeping Firefall active.
  • Protecting the system memory against malicious access.
  • Displaying messages related to system vulnerabilities.

6. Error detection:From time to time, the operating system checks the system for any external threat or malicious software activity. It also checks the hardware for any type of damage. This process displays several alerts to the user so that the appropriate action can be taken against any damage caused to the system.
7. Job scheduling: In a multitasking OS where multiple programs run simultaneously, the operating system determines which applications should run in which order and how time should be allocated to each application.

 

2.3 TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

1. Batch OS

Batch OS is the first operating system for second-generation computers. This OS does not directly interact with the computer. Instead, an operator takes up similar jobs and groups them together into a batch, and then these batches are executed one by one based on the first-come, first, serve principle.

2. Distributed OS

In a distributed OS, various computers are connected through a single communication channel. These independent computers have their memory unit and CPU and are known as loosely coupled systems. The system processes can be of different sizes and can perform different functions.

3. Multitasking OS

The multitasking OS is also known as the time-sharing operating system as each task is given some time so that all the tasks work efficiently.  This system provides access to a large number of users, and each user gets the time of CPU as they get in a single system.

4. Network OS

Network operating systems are the systems that run on a server and manage all the networking functions. They allow sharing of various files, applications, printers, security, and other networking functions over a small network of computers like LAN or any other private network.

5. Real-time OS

Real-Time operating systems serve real-time systems. These operating systems are useful when many events occur in a short time or within certain deadlines, such as real-time simulations.

Types of the real-time OS are:

• Hard real-time OS

• Soft real-time OS

6. Mobile OS

A mobile OS is an operating system for smartphones, tablets, and PDA’s. It is a platform on which other applications can run on mobile devices.

 

2.4 COMPUTER BOOTING

Computer booting is a process of loading operating system into computer’s main memory/random access memory (RAM) and then preparing the system for users to run applications when the computer is switched on.

Types of booting

There are 2 types of booting in computers there are:

1. Cold booting

It is referred to as cold booting when a computer starts up for the first time or when it is shut down, and the power button is pressed to restart the system. Compared to hot or warm booting, this booting takes longer.

2. Warm Booting

Computer systems can restart while powered on during hot booting or warm booting in computers when they hang or reach a state of no response. An alternative term for it is rebooting. The only remedy for this ailment, which has several reasons, is to restart the computer.

Importance of computer booting

1. Check whether all computer hardwareand software are functioning well.
2. It loads the operating system to the main memory.
3. It checks for any errors and reports back.
4. It prepares the desktop and other programs for the user and system use.

 

2.5 SELECTION AND ACQUISITION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

The selection and acquisition of an operating system (OS) for a computer or computing environment is a critical decision that should be based on the specific needs, hardware, and software requirements of the users or organization.

Factors to consider when choosing an operating system;
1. Compatibility with hardware: Ensure that the selected OS is compatible with the hardware you have. Consider processor architecture, memory requirements, storage space, and peripheral device support.

2. Software compatibility: Evaluate the compatibility of the OS with the software applications you intend to run. Ensure that essential software is available for the chosen OS or that there are suitable alternatives.
3. User requirements: Consider the needs and preferences of the end-users. The chosen OS should provide a user-friendly interface and features that support their tasks and workflows.
4. Security features: Assess the security features of the OS. Look for built-in security mechanisms, access controls, encryption options, and the OS’s track record in terms of security updates and vulnerabilities.
5. Licensing and costs: Review the licensing model and associated costs of the OS. Determine whether the OS is open source, proprietary, or freeware and consider your budget and licensing requirements.
6. Support and maintenance: Investigate the availability of support and maintenance services. Check whether the OS vendor or community provides regular updates, security patches, and technical support.
7. Scalability: Consider the scalability of the OS. Will it accommodate future growth and expansion of your computing environment, or will you need to migrate to a different OS as your needs evolve?

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 3

AN OVERVIEW OF APPLICATION PACKAGES

CHAPTER KEY OBJECTIVES

To be able to understand the following;- 1. Word processing 2. Spreadsheets 3. Presentation software

 

3.1 WORD PROCESSING

Word processing is the creation, editing, formatting, and printing of text documents using specialized software known as word processors. Word processing software provides a user-friendly interface for creating and manipulating text-based documents, making it a fundamental tool in many professional and personal contexts.

Applications of word processing:

• Business documents: Creating business letters, reports, proposals, and invoices.
• Academic work: Writing essays, research papers, theses, and dissertations.
• Personal correspondence: Drafting personal letters, cards, and invitations.
• Creative writing: Composing stories, poetry, and novels.
• Data presentation: Generating tables, charts, and graphs.
• Resume and cover letter writing: Preparing professional documents for job applications.
• Publication design: Creating newsletters, brochures, and flyers.

 

3.1.1 FEATURES OF A WORD PROCESSOR

1. Text entry: Word processors allow users to enter text through keyboards or other input devices. The text can include letters, numbers, symbols, and special characters.
2. Text editing: Users can edit and revise text within the document, including tasks such as copying, cutting, pasting, deleting, and undoing changes.
3. Formatting: Word processing software offers extensive formatting options, enabling users to change the font, size, style, alignment, and color of text. Users can also adjust line spacing and create bulleted or numbered lists.
4. Inserting and manipulating images: Most word processors allow users to insert images, shapes, and other graphical elements into documents. These images can be resized, positioned, and formatted as needed.
5. Spell checking and grammar checking: Word processors include spell-checking and grammar-checking features to identify and correct errors in text. Users can customize language preferences and add words to the dictionary.
6. Page layout: Users can adjust page size, margins, and orientation (portrait or landscape) to customize the layout of their documents. They can also control headers, footers, and page numbering.
7. Tables and charts: Word processing software offers tools for creating tables and charts, making it easy to organize data in a structured format.

 

3.1.2 FORMATTING AND EDITING TEXT

Formatting and editing text is a fundamental aspect of word processing. Word processing software provides a wide range of tools and features for controlling the appearance of text and making content more readable and visually appealing.

Formatting features change the arrangement, or layout, of pages. These features include aligning text vertically and horizontally, indenting and hyphenating text, and changing margins and line spacing.

• Alignment – Refers to the horizontal position of a line of text (also called justification).

• Use left alignment to start text at the left margin (even left margin).
• Use right alignment to align text at the right margin (even right margin).
• Use center alignment to center text between the left and right margins.
• Use justify alignment for even left and right margins.

• Center Page

• Line spacing – Changes the amount of blank space between lines of text.
• Margins
• Page Break
• Tab

• Text wrapping

 

Insert features

Various commands on the Insert menu are used to add page numbers, dates, headers, footers, and footnotes and to insert symbols, clip art, files, pictures, shapes, text boxes, and word art.

• Shapes
• Clip art
• Date
• Footnote and endnote
• Header and footer
• Page numbers

• Text boxes
• Word art

 

3.1.3 CREATING AND FORMATTING TABLES

Creating and formatting tables is a valuable skill in word processing and document preparation. Tables are useful for organizing and presenting data in a structured and visually appealing manner.

There are different methods for creating tables:

• Graphic grid
• Insert table
• Draw table
• Insert a new or existing excel spreadsheet table
• Quick tables
• Converting existing text into a table

To start, open a blank Word document from the Home/New page. Position your cursor in the document where you want the table inserted.

 

Formatting a table

After creating a table, you can format it to suit your needs. Here’s how to format a table:

1. Adjust column width and row height

– Click and drag the column dividers to adjust the width of columns.

– Hover over the row dividers to adjust the height of rows.

2, Borders and shading

– You can add or remove borders around cells, rows, or the entire table. Adjust the line style, color, and thickness as needed.

– You can also apply shading to cells, rows, or columns by changing the background color.

3. Cell alignment

– Select the cells you want to align, and use the alignment options to align text within cells (left, center, right; top, middle, bottom).

4. Merge and split cells

– To combine cells, select the cells you want to merge and choose the “Merge Cells” option. This is useful for creating headers or spanning cells.

– To split a merged cell, select it and choose the “Split Cells” option.

5. Text formatting

– You can format text within cells just as you would in the rest of your document. Change the font, size, style, and color as needed.

6. Table styles

– Many word processors offer predefined table styles that you can apply to your table for a consistent and professional look.

7. Formulae and calculations

– Some word processors allow you to perform calculations within table cells. Use these features for simple calculations.

8. Inserting images and objects

– You can insert images or other objects into table cells to enhance the presentation of your data.

9. Headers and footers

– Add header rows or footer rows to label or provide additional information about the table’s content.

 

3.2 SPREADSHEETS

Spreadsheets are powerful tools for data management, analysis, and presentation. They are used for a wide range of tasks, from simple calculations and financial planning to complex data analysis and project management.

Common uses of spreadsheets

1. Financial management: Create budgets, track expenses, and manage financial data.
2. Data analysis: Analyze datasets, perform statistical analysis, and visualize data.
3. Project management: Create Gantt charts and task lists for project planning and tracking.
4. Inventory management: Monitor stock levels and track inventory changes.
5. Sales and marketing: Manage customer data, track sales, and analyze marketing campaigns.
6. Educational use: Spreadsheets are used in education for various subjects, including mathematics and science.
7. Scientific research: Analyze research data and perform complex calculations.
8. Human resources: Maintain employee records, track working hours, and manage payroll.
9. Accounting and bookkeeping: Create balance sheets, income statements, and ledgers.

 

3.2.1 FEATURES OF A SPREADSHEET PROGRAM

1. Grid layout: Spreadsheets consist of rows and columns arranged in a grid. Each cell, where a row and column intersect, can contain text, numbers, formulas, or functions.
2. Data entry: You can input data into cells, including text, numbers, dates, and more. Cells can be customized with various formatting options, including font styles, colors, and borders.
3. Formulas and functions: Spreadsheets allow you to create formulas and use built-in functions to perform calculations. Common functions include SUM, AVERAGE, MAX, MIN, IF, and many others.
4. Auto-fill: You can use the auto-fill feature to replicate data or create sequences of numbers, dates, or other patterns.
5. Data sorting and filtering: Spreadsheets make it easy to sort data in ascending or descending order and apply filters to display specific subsets of data.
6. Charts and graphs: You can create various types of charts and graphs to visualize data, including bar charts, pie charts, line graphs, and more.
7. Data validation: Spreadsheets allow you to set rules for data entry, ensuring that data is accurate and consistent. This is particularly useful for forms and databases.
8. Conditional formatting: Apply formatting rules to cells based on specified conditions. For example, you can highlight cells with values above a certain threshold in a different color.
9. Data analysis tools: Spreadsheets provide data analysis tools for tasks like regression analysis, goal seeking, and data tables.
10. Pivot tables: Pivot tables are advanced features that allow for dynamic data summarization and analysis, particularly useful for large datasets.

 

3.2.2 FORMATTING AND EDITING SPREADSHEET

Formatting and editing spreadsheets is an essential part of working with data and creating well-organized and visually appealing documents. The specific steps and options may vary depending on the spreadsheet software you are using but the fundamental concepts are similar.

One can edit and format data in the spreadsheets using the spreadsheet toolbar. Below are the main formatting options that can be found in the toolbar for quick access:

• Undo or redo the last action
• Change text font or size
• Add bold, italic, underline, or strikethrough to text
• Change text or background color
• Add borders to cells
• Merge or unmerge cells
• Align text
• Wrap text
• Insert a chart, link, filter, or comment

In addition to the toolbar, Office also offers you many other editing and formatting options. Below are the highlighted features.

 

3.2.3 FORMULAS

Formulas are at the heart of spreadsheet applications like Microsoft Excel. They allow you to perform calculations, analyze data, and automate various tasks. Formulas are constructed using mathematical operators, functions, cell references, and constants.

 

3.2.4 FUNCTIONS; SUM, AVERAGE,MIN, MAX, IPMT, NPV,PMT,PV, VLOOKUP,

HLOOKUP, COUNT, IF, SUMIF

Spreadsheet function is a predefined formula that performs calculations using specific values in a particular order. All spreadsheet programs include common functions that can be used for quickly finding the sum, average, min, max, IPMT, NPV, PMT, PV, VLOOKUP, HLOOKUP, COUNT, IF and sumif  for a range of cells. In order to use functions correctly, you’ll need to understand the different parts of a function and how to create arguments to calculate values and cell references.

Sum

1. Using a spreadsheet in Addition

In reference to the table below, let’s try to calculate how many apples, plums and total fruit sold during the week:Go to cell B7 and type =SUM(A2:A6) this will add the numbers of apples.

• To start, move to the first row.
• Each formula in a spreadsheet starts with =
• Enter = and select the first cell you want to add. Notice how the cell reference appears in the formula

• Now type + and then select the second cell you want to add

 

 

• Press Enter or tab. The formula disappears and is replaced by the value.

 

 

 

Try changing the number in one of the original cells (apples or plums) you should see the value in total update automatically.

You can type each formula individually, but it also possible to cut and paste or drag formulas across a range of cells.

Copy the formula you have just written (using ctrl + c ) and paste it into the cell below (using ctrl + v ), you will get the sum of the two numbers on the row below.

Alternatively click on the lower right corner of the cell (the blue square), and drag the formula down to the bottom of the column. Watch the ‘total’ column update.

 

Average

This function determines the average of the values included in the argument. It calculates the sum of the cells and then divides that value by the number of cells in the argument.

1. Select the cellthat will contain the function. In our example, we’ll select cell C11.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. Type the equals sign (=)and enter the desired function name. In our example, we’ll type =AVERAGE.
3. Enter the cell rangefor the argument inside parentheses. In our example, we’ll type (C3:C10). This formula will add the values of cells C3:C10 and then divide that value by the total number of cells in the range to determine the average.
4. Press Enteron your keyboard. The function will be calculated, and the result will appear in the cell. In our example, the average price per unit of items ordered was 15.93.

Your spreadsheet will not always tell you if your function contains an error, so it’s up to you to check all of your functions.

Max and Min

The Excel MAX function can tell you what the largest numeric value is in a range of cells. The opposite of MAX is the MIN function, which returns the smallest numeric value in a range of cells.

 

3.2.5 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

Charts and graphs are visual representations of data that help convey information in a clear and concise manner. They are widely used for data analysis, reporting, and presentations.

Below are the top five best practices to make your chart or graph as clear and useful as possible:

1. Make It Clean: Cluttered graphs — those with excessive colors or texts — can be difficult to read and aren’t eyes catching. Remove any unnecessary information so your audience can focus on the point you’re trying to get across.
2. Choose Appropriate Themes: Consider your audience, the topic, and the main point of your chart when selecting a theme. While it can be fun to experiment with different styles, choose the theme that best fits your purpose.
3. Use Text Wisely: While charts and graphs are primarily visual tools, you will likely include some text (such as titles or axis labels). Be concise but use descriptive language, and be intentional about the orientation of any text (for example, it’s irritating to turn your head to read text written sideways on the x-axis).
4. Place Elements Intelligently: Pay attention to where you place titles, legends, symbols, and any other graphical elements. They should enhance your chart, not detract from it.
5. Sort Data Prior to Creating the Chart: People often forget to sort data or remove duplicates before creating the chart, which makes the visual unintuitive and can result in errors.

Sequential Processes in Charts and Graph Works

How to Chart Data in Excel

To generate a chart or graph in Excel, you must first provide Excel with data to pull from. In this section, we’ll show you how to chart data in Excel 2016.

Step 1: Enter Data into a Worksheet

• Open Excel and select New Workbook.
• Enter the data you want to use to create a graph or chart. In this example, we’re comparing the profit of five different products from 2013 to 2017. Be sure to include labels for your columns and rows. Doing so enables you to translate the data into a chart or graph with clear axis labels. You can download this sample data below.

 

Step 2: Select Range to Create Chart or Graph from Workbook Data

• Highlight the cells that contain the data you want to use in your graph by clicking and dragging your mouse across the cells.
• Your cell range will now be highlighted in gray and you can select a chart type.

 

 

In the following section, we’ll walk you through the specifics of creating a clustered column chart in Excel 2016.

How to Make a Graph in Excel

Although graphs and charts are distinct, Excel groups all graphs under the charts categories listed in the previous sections. To create a graph or another chart type, follow the steps below and select the appropriate graph type.

 

Select Range to Create a Graph from Workbook Data

• Highlight the cells that contain the data you want to use in your graph by clicking and dragging your mouse across the cells.
• Your cell range will now be highlighted in gray.

• Once the text is highlighted you can select a graph (which Excel refers to as chart). Click the Insert tab and click Recommended Charts on the toolbar. Then click the type of graph you wish to use.

 

 

Now you have a graph. To customize your graph, you can follow the same steps explained in the previous section. All functionality for creating a chart remains the same when creating a graph.

 

3.2.6 WORKING WITH PIVOT TABLES

Pivot tables are a powerful feature in spreadsheet applications. They allow you to summarize and analyze large datasets quickly and easily by reorganizing and summarizing data.

How to create a PivotTable in Excel for Windows

1. Select the cells you want to create a PivotTable from.

Note:  Your data shouldn’t have any empty rows or columns. It must have only a single-row heading.

1. Select Insert > PivotTable.

 

1. Under Choose the data that you want to analyze, select Select a table or range.

 

1. In Table/Range, verify the cell range.
2. Under Choose where you want the PivotTable report to be placed, select New worksheet to place the PivotTable in a new worksheet or Existing worksheet and then select the location you want the PivotTable to appear.
3. Select OK.

 

3.2.7 LINKING FORMULAS IN DIFFERENT WORKSHEETS

Linking formulas between different worksheets in spreadsheet applications allows you to reference data from one worksheet in another. This is particularly useful when you want to consolidate data, perform calculations, or create summary reports.

Procedure

Start typing a formula either in a destination cell or in the formula bar. When it comes to adding a reference to another worksheet, switch to that sheet and select a cell or a range of cells you want to refer to. Finish typing the formula and press the Enter key to complete it.

 

3.2.8 WHAT IF ANALYSIS; GOAL SEEK AND SOLVER

It is the process of changing the values in cells to see how those changes will affect the outcome of formulas on the worksheet.

 

Goal seek

The simplest sensitivity analysis tool in Excel is goal seek. Assuming that you know the single outcome you would like to achieve, the goal seek feature in excel allows you to arrive at that goal by mathematically adjusting a single variable within the equation.

To illustrate how it works, imagine that the bank is offering an interest rate of 9% per annum on personal loans with 24 months to repay, and that you would like to borrow $40,000.

Using the above information, the bank calculates that the amount borrowed plus interest over the loan period will be $47,200, as shown in cell B5. The amount to be paid each month is also calculated and shown in cell B6.

By using the Goal Seek command, we can indicate a desired outcome and Excel will determine the adjustment we need to make to a single variable.

In the example above, cell B5 is dependent on the variables in cells B1, B2, and B3. Cell B6 is dependent on cells B3 and B5. Therefore, if we determine that the monthly repayment amount quoted is higher than desired, we can use Goal Seek to set the monthly amount to $1750. Excel can work backwards to change either cell B1, B2, or B3 to reach that goal.

Practically speaking, we may not have much control over the interest rate, so it is more likely that we have the option of adjusting the amount we borrow, or the repayment period.

Our first inclination may be to find out how much we will be able to borrow if we pay $1750 per month and all other variables remain the same. Excel will change the principal (B1) based on the number we enter as the new value for cell B6.

Assuming that the interest amount (9%) and loan period (24 months) remain the same, the new principal amount is calculated and displayed in cell B1 if a valid solution exists.

Points to note:

1. The cell chosen in the “Set cell” field must be a cell containing a formula.
2. The cell chosen in the “By changing cell” field must be a cell containing a constant.
3. Once “OK” is selected from the Goal Seek Status window, the values on the worksheet are adjusted and are only retrievable by selecting the ‘Undo’ command (Ctrl+Z Windows shortcut/Cmd+Z Mac shortcut).

 

3.3 PRESENTATION SOFTWARE

Presentation software is a type of computer application that allows users to create and deliver visual presentations. These presentations typically include a combination of text, images, graphics, and sometimes multimedia elements such as audio and video. Presentation software is commonly used for business meetings, educational lectures, sales pitches, and various other communication purposes.

 

3.3.1 FEATURES OF A PRESENTATION PROGRAM

1. Slides

These contain any mixture of text, images, video, animations, links and sound.

1. Slide master

This allows the style (font, font size, background etc.) to be set once and then used throughout the presentation. The design features allow you to customize the appearance and format of the slides.

1. Transitions

This is how the presentation software “moves” the display of one slide to another. Transitions usually include dissolving from one slide to the next or the current slide being moved in some way to show the next slide as though it was underneath.

1. Animation effects

This allows the various elements on each slide to appear after a certain amount of time or when a presenter presses a button. Animation is divided between slide transitions and element animation. Using slide transition adds an effect when switching slides during a slide show. Element animation adds movement and sounds to the objects within the slide.

1. Slide notes

When these are used the presenter will see the current slide and any notes associated with it on his/her display and the audience will see just the slide on another screen or from a projector.

1. Integration

The software is compatible with all other software in the suite. For instance, PowerPoint is compatible with other software in the Microsoft Office suite.

 

3.3.2 TYPING AND FORMATTING TEXT IN SLIDE

Typing and editing text in a presentation slide starts with opening a new presentation slide. For purposes of this illustration, we will use PowerPoint slide with the following functional tools/menu below

• Title bar – Displays the name of the application followed by the title of the presentation
• Formatting toolbar – Provides quick access to commands you need for formatting
• Outline and slides tab – The slides tab gives you a thumbnail view of all the slides in the presentation and allows to rearrange their order; the outline tab adds textual content to the slides in an outline format
• Slide pane – Area where you build the slides for your presentation
• View buttons – Change the way you view the presentation; the Normal view (left button) is the default, the Slide Sorter view (center button) shows you only the thumbnails and is used to sort and rearrange the presentation, and the Run view (right button) runs the presentation from the current slide
• Drawing toolbar – Provides all the tools you need to draw and format objects
• Notes pane – Adds notes for yourself for each slide in your presentation
• Task pane (Windows version) – Varies based on what you are currently working on; when you first start PowerPoint, you see the New Presentation task pane; other possible tasks include Slide Layout, Slide Design, and Effects
• Menu bar – Includes all of the PowerPoint menu choices
• Placeholders – Designate the space that will be filled with titles, text, or other objects such as graphics or charts
• Application close button (Windows Version) – exits powerpoint
• Presentation close button (Windows version) – Closes the current presentation

 

3.3.3 SLIDE SHOW

A slide show is a sequence of individual slides or pages displayed in a continuous, automated, or manual presentation format. Slide shows are commonly used for a variety of purposes, including business presentations, educational lectures, photo albums, and more.

Creating a slide show:

1. Open presentation software: Launch your preferred presentation software (e.g., PowerPoint, Google Slides) and open the presentation you want to turn into a slide show.
2. Create or edit slides: Design or edit your individual slides. You can add text, images, graphics, charts, and other content to convey your message.
3. Slide order: Arrange your slides in the desired order to ensure a logical flow for your presentation.
4. Slide design: Apply consistent design elements, such as fonts, colors, and templates, to maintain a cohesive look throughout the presentation.
5. Transitions and animations (Optional): You can add slide transitions and animations to create visual effects when moving from one slide to the next. This can make the slide show more engaging.

 

Delivering a slide show:

Once you’ve created your slide show, you can deliver it in several ways:

1. Manual presentation:
   • Start the slide show by clicking the “Start Slide Show” button in your presentation software. Navigate through the slides manually using keyboard shortcuts or mouse clicks.
   • In manual mode, you have full control over the pacing of the presentation.
2. Automated presentation:
   • Set the slides to advance automatically after a specified duration (e.g., every 5 seconds). This is useful for unattended presentations.
   • Automated presentations are often used in digital signage, kiosks, and self-running displays.
3. Presenter mode (speaker view):
   • Many presentation software tools offer a “Presenter View” that shows you the current slide, the next slide, and your speaker notes on your screen while displaying only the current slide to the audience. This is helpful for speakers.
4. Remote presentation:
   • In a remote or online presentation, you can share your slide show through video conferencing or screen-sharing tools. Your audience views the slides on their screens.
5. Exported file:
   • You can export your slide show as a standalone file (e.g., a PowerPoint presentation file or PDF) that can be opened and viewed on any compatible device.

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 4

COMPUTER NETWORKS

CHAPTER KEY OBJECTIVES

To be able to understand the following;- 1. Computer networks concepts 2. Computer network hardware and software 3. Data transmission media 4. Types of computer networks 5. Advantages and limitations of networking 6. Cloud computing concepts, features and models 7. Internet of things (IoT)

 

4.1 COMPUTER NETWORKS CONCEPTS

Computer Networking is the practice of connecting computers together to enable communication and data exchange between them.

Components and concepts of computer networks:

1. Nodes: Nodes are the devices connected to the network, including computers, routers, switches, and more.
2. Links: Links are the communication pathways that connect nodes, and they can be wired (e.g., Ethernet cables) or wireless (e.g., Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).
3. Topology: Network topology refers to the physical or logical layout of nodes and links in a network. Common topologies include star, bus, ring, and mesh.
4. Protocols: Network protocols are rules and conventions that govern how data is transmitted and received across the network. Examples include TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) and HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol).
5. LAN and WAN: Local Area Networks (LANs) cover a small geographical area, like a home, office, or campus, while Wide Area Networks (WANs) cover larger areas, often connecting LANs across cities or even countries.
6. Internet: The internet is a global network of networks, connecting billions of devices and computers worldwide. It is based on standardized protocols, and the World Wide Web is one of its many services.
7. Firewalls and security: Firewalls are used to protect networks by monitoring and controlling incoming and outgoing network traffic. Security measures are essential to protect data from unauthorized access.

 

4.2 COMPUTER NETWORK HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Computer network hardware

Network hardware is a set of physical or network devices that are essential for interaction and communication between hardware units operational on a computer network. These are dedicated hardware components that connect to each other and enable a network to function effectively and efficiently.

The basic computer hardware components that are needed to set up a network are as follows;

1. Routers
2. Repeaters, hubs, and switches
3. Bridges
4. Gateways
5. Network interface cards

Computer network software

Network software is an umbrella term used to describe a wide range of software that streamlines the operations, design, monitoring, and implementation of computer networks.

Functions of computer network software

• User management allows administrators to add or remove users from the network. This is particularly useful when hiring or relieving
• File management lets administrators decide the location of data storage and control user access to that data.
• Access enables users to enjoy uninterrupted access to network resources.
• Network security systems assist administrators in looking after security and preventing data breaches.

 

4.3 DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Data transmission media refer to the physical or logical pathways through which data is transmitted between devices in a computer network.

Below are the most common data transmission media:

1. Twisted pair cable:
2. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
3. Coaxial cable
4. Fiber Optic cable
5. Wireless transmission
6. Microwave transmission
7. Satellite communication
8. Infrared (IR)

 

4.4 TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is the most basic type of computer network. This network is restrained to a single person, that is, communication between the computer devices is centered only on an individual’s workspace. PAN offers a network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device providing communication. Its transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance and very low cost.

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that connects computers through a common communication path, contained within a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN encompasses two or more computers connected over a server.

3. Campus Area Network (CAN)

CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer network that is usually used in places like a school or colleges. This network covers a limited geographical area that is; it spreads across several buildings within the campus. Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance cost and moderate cost.

4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that connects computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication path over a city, town, or metropolitan area. Its transmission speed is average. It is difficult to maintain and it comes with a high cost.

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical distance through a shared communication path. It is not restrained to a single location but extends over many locations. WAN can also be defined as a group of local area networks that communicate with each other with a range above 50km.

Its transmission speed is very low and it comes with very high maintenance and very high cost.

 

4.5 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF NETWORKING

Advantages

1. Enhancement of communication and information availability
2. Convenient sharing of resources
3. Easy file/data sharing
4. Highly flexible
5. Affordable
6. Increases cost efficiency
7. Networking boosts storage capacity

 

Disadvantages

1. Computer network lacks independence
2. Poses security difficulties
3. Lacks robustness
4. Presence of computer viruses and malware
5. Easy-going policies and light policing of computer networks allow negative activities

 

4.6 CLOUD COMPUTING CONCEPTS, FEATURES AND MODELS

Cloud computing is a technology paradigm that leverages the internet to deliver computing services, including servers, storage, databases, networking, software, and analytics, over the cloud (internet).

Features of cloud computing

1. Resources pooling
2. On-demand self-service
3. Easy maintenance
4. Large network access
5. Availability
6. Automatic system

 

Models

1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): In this model, users rent virtualized hardware resources like servers, storage, and networking. They have control over the operating system and applications but not the underlying infrastructure.

Benefits

1. Cost savings
2. On-demand access
3. Flexibility

 

2. Platform as a Service (PaaS): PaaS provides a platform that includes an operating system, development tools, and runtime environments. Users can focus on building and deploying applications without managing the underlying infrastructure.

Benefits

1. Faster development time
2. Reduced costs
3. Enhanced security
4. High availability

 

3. Software as a Service (SaaS): SaaS offers fully developed software applications that are accessed over the internet. Users do not need to worry about infrastructure, maintenance, or updates; they simply use the software.

Benefits

1. Lower total cost of ownership
2. Better security

 

 

4.7 INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)

The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the network of physical objects, devices, vehicles, buildings, and other items embedded with sensors, software, and network connectivity, allowing them to collect and exchange data. IoT enables these “things” to interact with each other and with central systems, typically over the internet, to gather and share information and perform various tasks.

Core benefits of IoT

1. Improved efficiency
2. Data-driven decision-making
3. Cost-savings
4. Enhanced customer experience

 

Risks and challenges in IoT

IoT offers many benefits, but it also poses several risks and challenges. Here are some of the most significant ones:

1. Security and privacy risks:  Many IoT devices are vulnerable to hackers and other cyber threats, which can compromise the security and privacy of sensitive data.
2. Interoperability issues: IoT devices from different manufacturers often use different standards and protocols, making it difficult for them to perform what’s called “machine to machine” communication. This can lead to interoperability issues and create silos of data that are difficult to integrate and analyze.
3. Data overload: IoT devices generate vast amounts of data, which can overwhelm businesses that are not prepared to handle it.
4. Cost and complexity: Implementing an IoT system can be costly and complex, requiring significant investments in hardware, software and infrastructure.
5. Regulatory and legal challenges: As IoT devices become more widespread, regulatory and legal challenges are emerging. Businesses need to comply with various data protection, privacy and cybersecurity regulations, which can vary from country to country.

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 5

THE INTERNET

CHAPTER KEY OBJECTIVES

To be able to understand the following;- 1. Introduction to the Internet 2. Applications of Internet 3. Internet services – e-mails, www, instant messaging 4. Internet service providers (ISPs) 5. Applications of internet 6. Online collaborative tools; cloud sheets and cloud documents 7. Impact of internet on society

 

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNET

The Internet, short for “interconnected networks,” is a vast global network of computer networks that allows information and data to be transmitted and shared between devices and users around the world. It has revolutionized the way we communicate, access information, conduct business, and engage with the digital world.

Features of the internet

The internet is a vast, interconnected network of computers and other network-enabled devices, which is:

1. Globally available
2. Easy to use
3. Compatible with other types of media
4. Affordable
5. Flexible

 

5.2 APPLICATIONS OF INTERNET

The Internet has had a profound impact on various aspects of our lives and has enabled a wide range of applications that have transformed the way we work, communicate, access information, and conduct business.

1) On-line communication

2) Feedback about products

3) Product promotion

4) Customer support service

5) On-line shopping

6) On-line journals and magazines

7) Real-time updates

8) Research

 

5.2.1 USING SEARCH ENGINES

Using search engines is one of the primary ways people access information on the internet. Search engines help users find websites, articles, images, videos, and other digital content related to their queries. Here are some common applications for search engines:

1. Information retrieval
2. Research
3. News and current events
4. Product research
5. Travel planning
6. Local information

 

5.2.2 E-MAILS

Email refers to both the delivery system and individual messages that are sent and received.
Email (electronic mail) is one of the most foundational and widely used applications of the internet. It revolutionized communication, making it faster, more convenient, and cost-effective. Here are some of the key applications and uses of emails:

1. Personal communication
2. Professional communication.
3. Business correspondence
4. Education
5. Marketing and newsletters
6. Job search
7. Notification services
8. File sharing

 

5.2.3 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION

The Internet has revolutionized electronic communication in numerous ways, enabling people to connect, share information, and collaborate globally. Here are some of the key applications of the Internet in electronic communication:

1. Email
2. Instant Messaging (IM)
3. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
4. Social media
5. Web conferencing
6. Blogging
7. Forums and discussion boards

 

5.3 INTERNET SERVICES – E-MAILS, WWW, INSTANT MESSAGING

Internet services like emails, the World Wide Web (WWW), and instant messaging are fundamental components of online communication.

Emails (Electronic Mail)

Email is a method of exchanging digital messages between people using electronic devices, typically via the Internet.

Features

1. Text and attachments: Users can send text messages and attach files, documents, images, and other media.
2. Addressing: Emails are sent to specific email addresses, which consist of a username and domain (e.g., [email protected]).
3. Folders and filters: Most email services offer features like folders, labels, and filters to organize and manage messages.
4. Synchronization: Emails can be accessed from various devices, including computers, smartphones, and tablets.

Common email services: Gmail, Outlook, Yahoo Mail, and many more.

 

World Wide Web (WWW)

The World Wide Web is a system of interconnected documents and resources linked by hyperlinks and URLs. It is a part of the Internet that allows users to access and interact with information.

Features

1. Web pages: Content is presented as web pages, which can include text, images, videos, hyperlinks, and interactive elements.
2. Search engines: Users can search for and find information on the web using search engines like Google, Bing, and Yahoo.
3. E-commerce: The WWW facilitates online shopping and transactions on websites like Amazon, eBay, and others.
4. Social media: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram are web-based services for social interaction.
5. Browsers: Users access the WWW through web browsers such as Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and Edge.

 

Instant Messaging (IM)

Instant messaging is a real-time communication service that enables users to send and receive text, voice, video, and other multimedia messages.

Features

1. Real-time communication: IM allows users to engage in live conversations with individuals or groups.
2. Emoticons and multimedia: Users can express emotions with emojis, send photos, videos, and voice messages.
3. Status updates: IM often shows the online/offline status of contacts.
4. Group chats: IM services support group conversations, making it easy to communicate with multiple people simultaneously.
5. Common IM services: WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, Skype, Slack, and more.

 

5.4 INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDERS (ISPS)

Internet Service Providers (ISPs) are companies or organizations that provide access to the Internet for consumers, businesses, and other entities. They offer a range of services that allow users to connect to the Internet, access websites, send and receive emails, and use various online applications. ISPs play a crucial role in the functioning of the Internet by connecting users to the global network.

Types of ISPs:

• Broadband ISPs: These providers offer high-speed Internet access through various technologies, including DSL, cable, fiber-optic, and satellite connections.
• Dial-up ISPs: Although less common today, dial-up ISPs offer Internet access through traditional telephone lines.
• Wireless ISPs: These providers use wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi, WiMAX, and cellular networks to deliver Internet access.
• DSL providers: They offer Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Internet access over telephone lines.
• Cable internet providers: Cable companies deliver Internet access through their cable television infrastructure.
• Fiber-optic ISPs: Fiber-optic providers offer ultra-fast Internet connections using optical fiber cables.
• Satellite ISPs: These providers use satellites to offer Internet access, particularly in remote or rural areas.

 

Services provided by ISPs:

• Internet connectivity
• Email services
• Web hosting

 

5.5 APPLICATIONS OF INTERNET

The Internet has had a profound impact on various aspects of our lives and has enabled a wide range of applications that have transformed the way we work, communicate, access information, and conduct business.

1) On-line communication

2) Feedback about products

3) Product promotion

4) Customer support service

5) On-line shopping

6) On-line journals and magazines

7) Real-time updates

8) Research

 

5.6 ONLINE COLLABORATIVE TOOLS; CLOUD SHEETS AND CLOUD DOCUMENTS

Online collaborative tools have become essential for remote work and collaborative projects, allowing multiple users to work together on documents and spreadsheets in real-time, regardless of their physical location. Two popular types of these tools are Cloud sheets and cloud documents:

Cloud sheets

Cloud Sheets are online collaborative tools designed for working on spreadsheets. They offer several benefits, including:

1. Real-time collaboration: Multiple users can work on the same spreadsheet simultaneously, making it ideal for teamwork and data analysis.
2. Version control: Changes are automatically saved, and users can access previous versions of the spreadsheet, making it easy to track edits and revert to earlier states.
3. Accessibility: Users can access cloud sheets from various devices with an internet connection, enabling flexible and remote work.
4. Sharing and permissions: You can share spreadsheets with others and set permissions to control who can view, edit, or comment on the document.
5. Advanced features: Cloud spreadsheet tools often offer advanced features for data analysis, formulas, charts, and integration with other applications.
6. Popular cloud spreadsheet tools: Google Sheets, Microsoft Excel Online, Zoho Sheets.

 

Cloud documents

Cloud documents are online tools designed for creating and editing text-based documents. They offer the following advantages:

1. Real-time collaboration: Multiple users can simultaneously edit and comment on documents, which is particularly useful for co-authoring reports, articles, or presentations.
2. Synchronization: Edits and changes are instantly synchronized, ensuring that all collaborators have access to the most up-to-date version of the document.
3. Accessibility: Users can access cloud documents from various devices, including computers, smartphones, and tablets, allowing work from virtually anywhere.
4. Version history: Cloud document tools maintain a version history, enabling users to review changes, restore previous versions, and track editing progress.
5. Sharing and permissions: You can easily share cloud documents with others and set permissions to control who can edit, comment, or view the document.
6. Popular cloud document tools: Google Docs, Microsoft Word Online, Dropbox Paper.

 

5.7 IMPACT OF INTERNET ON SOCIETY

Positive impacts

1. Access to information: The Internet has democratized access to information, allowing people to research and learn about virtually any topic. It has become a valuable resource for education, research, and personal growth.
2. Communication and connectivity: The Internet has revolutionized communication, making it easy to connect with people globally through email, social media, video calls, and instant messaging. This has strengthened personal and professional relationships.
3. Business and economy: E-commerce and online marketing have expanded business opportunities and global markets. The Internet has also fostered innovation, entrepreneurship, and the growth of small businesses.
4. Education and E-learning: Online education platforms have made learning more accessible and flexible. Students can take courses and access educational resources from around the world.
5. Entertainment and culture: The Internet offers a wide range of entertainment options, including streaming services, online gaming, and user-generated content. It has also empowered artists and creators to reach global audiences.
6. Political and social activism: The Internet has amplified political and social movements, enabling individuals to mobilize, raise awareness, and advocate for change. It has provided a platform for marginalized voices.
7. Civic engagement and government services: E-government services offer convenience, transparency, and efficiency for citizens. Online voting initiatives aim to enhance civic engagement.

 

Negative impacts:

1. Information overload: The vast amount of information available online can lead to information overload, making it challenging to discern reliable sources from misinformation or “fake news.”
2. Privacy concerns: The Internet has raised concerns about privacy, with data breaches, online tracking, and surveillance threatening individuals’ digital privacy and security.
3. Cybercrimes: The Internet has given rise to various cybercrimes, including hacking, identity theft, phishing, and online fraud, posing risks to individuals and organizations.
4. Addiction and digital distraction: Excessive use of the Internet, social media, and online entertainment can lead to addiction and digital distraction, negatively affecting mental health and productivity.
5. Online harassment and cyberbullying: The anonymity of the Internet can lead to online harassment, cyberbullying, and harmful behavior that impacts mental well-being, particularly among young people.
6. Disinformation and echo chambers: Social media platforms can contribute to the spread of disinformation and create echo chambers where people are exposed only to like-minded perspectives, hindering constructive discourse.
7. Job displacement: Automation and digitalization of work processes have led to concerns about job displacement and changes in the labor market.

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 6

DATA SECURITY

CHAPTER KEY OBJECTIVES

To be able to understand the following;- 1. Overview of data security 2. Threats and controls 3. Data backup and restoration procedures

 

6.1 OVERVIEW OF DATA SECURITY

Data security refers to all the practices and measures enacted to protect data from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification or destruction. It covers a wide range of techniques, technologies, policies and procedures designed around the concept of data loss prevention to ensure its confidentiality, integrity and availability.

The following are some of the reasons why data security is critical:

• To maintain business continuity
• To prevent data breach
• To keep illegal access at bay

 

Types of data security

1. Encryption
2. Data erasure
3. Data masking
4. Data resiliency

 

6.2 THREATS AND CONTROLS

Threats refer to potential risks and vulnerabilities that can compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data. Controls are measures, safeguards, and practices put in place to mitigate these threats and protect data.

There are several types of data threats that can affect computer devices, including:

1. Malware
2. Phishing
3. Insider threats
4. Data breaches
5. Physical damage
6. Man-in-the-middle attacks

There are several controls that can be implemented to mitigate data threats, including:

1. Access controls: These controls limit access to data to authorized individuals only. Access controls can be implemented through various methods, such as user authentication and authorization, data encryption, and firewalls.
2. Data backup and recovery: Data backup and recovery procedures help ensure that data is recoverable in case of data loss or corruption. These procedures involve regularly backing up data to secure locations and testing the recovery process to ensure it is working correctly.
3. Network security: Network security involves implementing measures to protect networks from unauthorized access, data theft, and other cyber threats. These measures include firewalls, intrusion detection and prevention systems, and network monitoring tools.
4. Employee training and awareness: Employee training and awareness programs educate employees on data security best practices, such as password management, email security, and safe browsing habits. These programs can also help reduce the risk of insider threats by promoting a culture of security and awareness.
5. Physical security: Physical security measures, such as locks, security cameras, and access controls, help prevent unauthorized physical access to data storage locations.
6. Incident response: Incident response plans outline procedures for responding to security incidents, such as data breaches or cyber attacks. These plans help minimize the damage caused by security incidents and facilitate a prompt and effective response.

 

6.3 DATA BACKUP AND RESTORATION PROCEDURES

The backup and recovery of data is the process of backing up data in the event of a loss and setting up secure systems that allow one to recover data as a result. Data backup requires the copying and archiving of computer data to make it accessible in case of data corruption or deletion.

A complete backup process should include the following steps:

1. Create a backup of the current databases and any customizations or files specific to the organization’s needs, such as import templates, custom reports, spreadsheets, etc.
2. Store multiple copies of all backup files on external media, such as a tape drive or CD/DVD.
3. Regularly test your backup:
   1. Make a backupof the database
   2. Restore from a backup copy. If you’re testing a backup for the first time, ensure that you restore the backup in a test environment first (e.g. on a standalone workstation or isolated server). Restoring the backup this way ensures that; if the backup is bad, it would not affect your live database.
   3. Verify users can log into the database and that the correct data is present
   4. Restore the original data

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 7

INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN AN ENTERPRISE

CHAPTER KEY OBJECTIVES

To be able to understand the following;- 1. Overview of information systems 2. Components of an information system 3. Types and characteristics of information systems 4. Systems in a functional perspective 5. Enterprise applications and the business process integration

 

7.1 OVERVIEW OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

An information system (IS) is an interconnected set of components used to collect, store, process and transmit data and digital information. At its core, it is a collection of hardware, software, data, people and processes that work together to transform raw data into useful information.

The lifecycle of an information system involves planning, analysis, design, implementation, maintenance, and evaluation stages. These stages ensure that the system continues to meet organizational needs and remains up to date with technology and business requirements.

 

The following are the characteristics of an information system:

• A system is based on long-term planning.
• It provides a holistic view of the dynamics and the structure of the organization.
• It works as a complete and comprehensive system covering all interconnecting sub-systems within the organization.
• It is based on a need for strategic, operation and tactical information of managers of an organization.
• It is capable of making forecasts and estimates and generating advanced information. Thus it provides a competitive advantage.
• It creates a linkage between all sub-systems within the organization, so that the decision makers can take the right decision based on an integrated view.
• It allows an easy flow of information through various sub-systems, thereby avoiding redundancy and duplicity of data.
• It provides flexibility in data storage and retrieval.
• It provides organized and relevant information for all levels of management: strategic, operational, and tactical.

 

7.2 COMPONENTS OF AN INFORMATION SYSTEM

An information system is essentially made up of five components hardware, software, database, network and people. These five components integrate to perform input, process, output, feedback and control.

1. Hardware consists of input/output device, processor, operating system and media devices.
2. Software consists of various programs and procedures.
3. Database consists of data organized in the required structure.
4. Network consists of hubs, communication media and network devices.
5. People consist of device operators, network administrators and system specialist.

Information processing consists of input; data process, data storage, output and control.

 

7.3 TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

1. Transaction Processing System (TPS)

• Transaction Processing System are information system that processes data resulting from the occurrences of business transactions
• Their objectives are to provide transaction in order to update records and generate reports i.e to perform store keeping function
• The transaction is performed in two ways: batching processing and online transaction processing.
• Example: Bill system, payroll system, Stock control system.

2. Management Information System (MIS)

• Management Information System is designed to take relatively raw data available through a Transaction Processing System and convert them into a summarized and aggregated form for the manager, usually in a report format. It reports tending to be used by middle management and operational supervisors.
• Many different types of report are produced in MIS. Some of the reports are a summary report, on-demand report, ad-hoc reports and an exception report.
• Example: Sales management systems, Human resource management system.

3. Decision Support System (DSS)

• Decision Support System is an interactive information system that provides information, models and data manipulation tools to help in making the decision in a semi-structured and unstructured situation.
• Decision Support System comprises tools and techniques to help in gathering relevant information and analyze the options and alternatives, the end user is more involved in creating DSS than an MIS.
• Example: Financial planning systems, Bank loan management systems.

4. Experts System

• Experts systems include expertise in order to aid managers in diagnosing problems or in problem-solving. These systems are based on the principles of artificial intelligence research.
• Experts Systems is a knowledge-based information system. It uses its knowledge about a specify are to act as an expert consultant to users.
• Knowledgebase and software modules are the components of an expert system. These modules perform inference on the knowledge and offer answers to a user’s question

 

7.4 SYSTEMS IN A FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE

A functional perspective in the context of systems refers to viewing and analyzing systems based on their functions, roles, and interactions rather than their individual components. This approach emphasizes the dynamic behavior and purpose of a system.

Aspects of systems from a functional perspective:

1. Functions: Systems are designed to perform specific functions or tasks. A functional perspective focuses on understanding what these functions are and how they are achieved within the system.
2. Interactions: In a functional perspective, the emphasis is on how different components or subsystems of a system interact to achieve its overall functions. This includes understanding the flow of information, energy, or materials within the system.
3. Emergent Properties: Systems often exhibit emergent properties, which are properties or behaviors that arise from the interactions of the system’s components. These emergent properties are a fundamental consideration in the functional perspective.
4. Purpose: A functional perspective considers the purpose or goals of the system. Why does the system exist, and what is it intended to achieve? Understanding the purpose is crucial for analyzing and designing systems effectively.
5. Feedback and Control: Many systems incorporate feedback mechanisms to regulate their behavior. The functional perspective involves examining how feedback loops are used to maintain the system’s desired functions and conditions.
6. Boundaries: Defining the boundaries of a system is essential in a functional perspective. This involves determining what is considered part of the system and what is external to it. Boundaries help in delineating the system’s interactions and functions.

 

 

7.5 ENTERPRISE APPLICATIONS AND THE BUSINESS PROCESS INTEGRATION

Enterprise applications and business process integration are closely related concepts within the realm of modern business operations. Enterprise applications are software systems designed to support and optimize various business functions, while business process integration refers to the seamless coordination and flow of data and activities across these applications. Here’s a closer look at how these two concepts intersect:

Enterprise applications

Enterprise applications are large-scale software systems specifically developed to address the needs of a business or organization. They encompass a wide range of functions, such as Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), Customer Relationship Management (CRM), Supply Chain Management (SCM), Human Resources Management (HRM), and more.

Functionality: Enterprise applications are designed to automate, streamline, and enhance core business processes and activities. They typically cover multiple functional areas within an organization, helping to manage data, workflows, and resources efficiently.

Examples: Prominent examples of enterprise applications include SAP, Oracle E-Business Suite, Salesforce, and Microsoft Dynamics, each tailored to specific business functions.

 

Business process integration:

Business process integration involves the seamless connection and coordination of various business processes and data flows within and across an organization. It aims to eliminate silos and optimize workflows to enhance efficiency, reduce errors, and improve decision-making.

Types: Integration can occur at different levels, including data integration, application integration, and business process integration. Business process integration is the most comprehensive, involving the harmonization of end-to-end business processes.

Benefits: Integration fosters real-time data sharing, supports cross-functional collaboration, and enables a more agile response to changes in the business environment.

 

The role of enterprise applications in business process integration

1. Centralization: Enterprise applications often serve as central repositories of data and functionality. They provide a single source of truth for various business processes, making it easier to integrate data and processes.
2. APIs and connectors: Many enterprise applications offer APIs (Application Programming Interfaces) and connectors that facilitate integration with other applications. These APIs allow data to be shared and processes to be coordinated between different systems.
3. End-to-end process support: Enterprise applications are designed to support end-to-end business processes. They ensure that all stages of a process are captured within a single system, making it easier to integrate processes.
4. Data consistency: Enterprise applications help maintain data consistency across various business functions. This is crucial for effective business process integration since inconsistent data can lead to errors and inefficiencies.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 8

E-COMMERCE

CHAPTER KEY OBJECTIVES

To be able to understand the following;- 1. e-commerce concepts and features 3. Impact of the internet on business 4. E-commerce enabling software 5. Business opportunities in e-commerce 6. E-commerce infrastructure and platforms 7. E-commerce payments methods 8. Challenges of e-commerce 9. Securing e-commerce transactions 10. M-commerce and applications 11. Digital marketing methods

 

8.1 E-COMMERCE CONCEPTS AND FEATURES

The term e-commerce (Electronic Commerce) refers to all types of business operations and transactions that are executed through Internet and other electronic technologies.

E-commerce is a virtual business environment in which information moves electronically via Internet related to buying, selling, transportation of goods and services.

Features of E-commerce

1) Ubiquity

E-commerce is widespread, that is, it is available everywhere always. It sets free market from being restricted to a physical space and makes it possible to shop from computer (such as desktop, laptop). The result is called a market space.

2) Global reach

E-commerce technologies enable a business to easily reach across geographic boundaries around the earth far more conveniently and effectively as compared to traditional commerce.

3) Universal standards

Universal Standards are standards shared by all the nations around world. These are technical standards of Internet for conducting e-commerce. It gives all the ability to connect at the same “level” and it provides network externalities that will benefit everyone.

4) Interactivity

E-commerce technologies permits two-way communication between customer and sellers which makes it interactive.

5) Information density  

Information density means total amount and quality of information available over Internet to all market buyers and sellers. Internet vastly increases information density. Information density offers better quality information to consumer and merchants.

6) Personalization 

E-commerce technology offers personalization. Personalization means designing marketing messages according to particular individuals by customizing it as per customer personal details like name, interests, and past purchases record.

 

8.2 MODELS OF E-COMMERCE

1. Business-to-Consumer (B2C):

B2C e-commerce involves the sale of products or services directly from a business to individual consumers. It’s one of the most common e-commerce models.

Examples: Online retail stores like Amazon, Walmart

2. Business-to-Business (B2B)

B2B e-commerce involves transactions between businesses. It may include the sale of raw materials, parts, services, or finished products to other businesses.

Examples: Alibaba, Grainger, and various industry-specific marketplaces for procurement.

3. Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C):

C2C e-commerce allows individual consumers to sell products or services to other consumers. It often involves peer-to-peer (P2P) transactions.

Examples: Online auction sites like eBay and classified ad platforms like Craigslist.

4. Consumer-to-Business (C2B):

C2B e-commerce reverses the traditional model, where consumers offer products or services to businesses. This is common in freelance work and user-generated content.

Examples: Freelancing platforms like Upwork and Fiverr, influencer marketing, and crowdsourcing websites.

5. Business-to-Government (B2G):

B2G e-commerce involves businesses selling products or services to government entities at various levels, such as federal, state, or local governments.

Examples: Government procurement websites and portals for bidding on government contracts.

6. Mobile Commerce (M-Commerce):

M-commerce is e-commerce conducted through mobile devices, primarily smartphones and tablets. It encompasses a variety of e-commerce models and is closely tied to mobile apps.

Examples: Mobile shopping apps for retail, mobile payment apps, and mobile banking.

 

8.3 IMPACT OF THE INTERNET ON BUSINESS

1. Brand personification  

Through the internet, companies have managed to create a massive following of individuals with common interests in products and services. With the help of these online communities, enterprises can create a positive image and develop strong brands.

2. Increased research  

The internet provides in-depth information which can help business leaders learn about new trends, discover changes in consumer behavior. It also helps you to identify other things that enhance their knowledge and earn a competitive edge.

3. Easier marketing

Today, the internet has proved to be a cost-effective platform where companies can market their products and services without having to spend a fortune.

4. Improved data storage and retrieval   

The emergence of cloud-based software systems has made it easy for businesses to store and retrieve data.

5. Improved investment and collaboration opportunities  

The internet has made sharing of information easier among members of business no matter where they are. With enhanced communication and interaction, it has become relatively easy for business-minded individuals to collaborate and strengthen their enterprises through information sharing.

 

8.4 E-COMMERCE ENABLING SOFTWARE

This software provides the tools and functionality necessary for creating, managing, and optimizing e-commerce websites and operations. Here are some key categories of e-commerce enabling software:

1. E-commerce platforms:

E-commerce platforms provide the foundation for building and managing online stores. They include features for product catalog management, shopping cart functionality, and order processing.

Examples: Shopify, WooCommerce (WordPress plugin), Magento, BigCommerce, and PrestaShop.

2. Content Management Systems (CMS):

CMS software allows businesses to create and manage website content, including product descriptions, images, and promotional materials.

Examples: WordPress, Joomla, and Drupal.

3. Payment processors:

Payment processors enable online businesses to accept payments securely. They integrate with e-commerce platforms to process credit card transactions and other payment methods.

Examples: PayPal, Stripe, Square, and Authorize.net.

4. Shopping cart software:

Shopping cart software allows customers to select products, add them to their cart, and proceed to checkout. They often integrate with e-commerce platforms or can be standalone solutions.

Examples: OpenCart, Zen Cart, and X-Cart.

5. Customer Relationship Management (CRM):

CRM software helps businesses manage customer data, interactions, and relationships. It is useful for understanding customer behavior and providing personalized services.

Examples: Salesforce, HubSpot CRM, and Zoho CRM.

6. Inventory management software:

Inventory management software helps businesses track stock levels, automate reordering, and manage product availability in real-time.

Examples: TradeGecko, Cin7, and Stitch Labs.

 

8.5 BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES IN E-COMMERCE

1. Online retail

– E-commerce store: Starting an online store allows you to sell products to a global audience. This can include physical goods, digital products, or a combination of both.

2. Dropshipping

– Dropshipping platform: With dropshipping, you don’t need to hold inventory. You work with suppliers who ship products directly to your customers when orders are placed.

3. Subscription E-commerce:

– Subscription box service: Create a subscription service where customers receive products regularly, such as monthly beauty or food boxes.

4. E-commerce Marketplaces:

– Niche marketplace: Build a marketplace focusing on a specific product category or niche, like handmade crafts or vintage items.

– Regional marketplace: Launch a regional or local e-commerce marketplace to connect buyers and sellers within a specific area.

5. B2B E-commerce:

– B2B E-commerce platform: Develop a platform that caters to businesses by facilitating bulk purchases, wholesale transactions, and procurement.

6. M-Commerce:

– Mobile app development: Create mobile shopping apps for e-commerce businesses or develop apps that offer mobile payment solutions.

7. Digital Products and Services:

– Digital downloads: Sell digital products like e-books, music, software, and online courses.

– Online services: Offer digital services such as web design, marketing, consulting, or freelance work.

 

8.6 E-COMMERCE INFRASTRUCTURE AND PLATFORMS

Establishing a robust e-commerce infrastructure and selecting the right platforms are crucial for the success of an online business. These infrastructure elements and platforms provide the foundation for creating, managing, and scaling e-commerce operations. Here are the key components:

E-commerce infrastructure

1. Web hosting
2. Domain name
3. Security
4. Content Delivery Network (CDN)
5. Database management
6. Scalability
7. Backup and disaster recovery

E-commerce platforms:

1. Shopify
2. WooCommerce (WordPress): It’s highly customizable and integrates seamlessly with WordPress websites.
3. Magento: Magento is a robust open-source platform known for its scalability and flexibility. It’s suitable for businesses of all sizes.
4. Wix: Wix provides an easy-to-use website builder with e-commerce capabilities. It’s a good choice for small to medium-sized businesses.
5. Volusion: Volusion is a hosted e-commerce platform that includes features for online store creation, marketing, and order management.
6. Open cart: Open cart is an open-source e-commerce platform known for its simplicity and customization options.

 

8.7 E-COMMERCE PAYMENTS METHODS

E-commerce payment methods are the various ways through which customers can make online purchases and complete transactions on an e-commerce website. Offering a variety of payment options can enhance the shopping experience for customers and increase conversion rates. Here are some common e-commerce payment methods:

1. Credit and debit cards
2. Digital wallets i.e. PayPal, apple pay, Google pay
3. Bank transfers and e-checks
4. Cash on Delivery (COD)
5. Cryptocurrencies
6. Bank and wire transfers

 

8.8 CHALLENGES OF E-COMMERCE

1. Lack of security

Consumer needs to be confident and trust over e-commerce payment providers. Any fraud, hacking or forgery can break the trust of consumer.

1. Low bandwidth

In many countries, network might cause an issue because of low bandwidth.

1. Difficulty in integrating e-commerce 

It is difficult to integrate e-commerce software or website with the some existing applications and databases. Vendors need special web servers to, deal with integration problem in addition to network servers.

1. Not all customers have access to internet 

Internet access is not universally available so much of the effort made does not actually reach the consumer. Many potential customers that are living in remote villages have not Internet access facility.

1. Lack of touch and feel

Consumers may want to touch and feel a product before purchasing online. Online businesses do, not provide the touch and feel experience to consumer on items such as clothes, shoes etc.

1. Customers relation problems

Organization needs loyal customers to run their online business for long time. Online businesses cannot continue without loyal customers in today’s competition.

 

8.9 SECURING E-COMMERCE TRANSACTIONS

Securing e-commerce transactions is of paramount importance to protect customer data, build trust, and maintain the integrity of your online business. Here are various measures and best practices to ensure the security of e-commerce transactions:

1. Use Secure Socket Layer (SSL) encryption: Implement SSL certificates to encrypt data transmitted between the customer’s browser and your server. This safeguards sensitive information like credit card details and personal data.
2. Choose a secure e-commerce platform: Select a reputable e-commerce platform or shopping cart software with built-in security features and regular security updates.
3. Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) compliance: If you handle credit card information, ensure compliance with PCI DSS, which sets security standards for processing cardholder data.
4. Two-Factor Authentication (2FA): Require 2FA for administrative access to your e-commerce backend. This adds an extra layer of protection against unauthorized access.
5. Regular software updates and patching: Keep the e-commerce software, plugins, and server software up to date to fix security vulnerabilities.
6. Strong password policies: Enforce strong password policies for administrators and users, and encourage regular password changes.
7. Firewall protection: Implement a web application firewall (WAF) to protect against common web threats and attacks.

 

8.10 M-COMMERCE AND APPLICATIONS

M-commerce, short for mobile commerce, refers to the use of mobile devices, such as smartphones and tablets, for conducting various types of commercial transactions. It has become a significant and rapidly growing component of e-commerce, allowing consumers to shop, pay, and interact with businesses and services through mobile apps and mobile-optimized websites. Below are some common applications and use cases of m-commerce:

1. Mobile shopping apps
2. Mobile payments
3. In-store mobile payments
4. Mobile banking and financial services
5. Peer-to-peer payments
6. Mobile ticketing and reservations
7. Food delivery and ordering
8. Ride-sharing and transportation
9. Mobile wallets for loyalty programs

 

8.11 DIGITAL MARKETING METHODS

The term digital marketing refers to the use of digital channels to market products and services to consumers.

Common digital marketing methods:

1. Search Engine Optimization (SEO)
2. Content marketing
3. Social media marketing
4. Email marketing
5. Pay-Per-Click Advertising (PPC)
6. Affiliate marketing
7. Influencer marketing
8. Display advertising
9. Video marketing
10. Social media advertising

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 9

MOBILE DEVICES AND APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER KEY OBJECTIVES

To be able to understand the following;- 1. Overview of mobile computing 2. Types of mobile devices 3. Uses of mobile devices 4. Overview of mobile applications 5. Mobile browsers

 

9.1 OVERVIEW OF MOBILE COMPUTING

Mobile computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and video via a computer or any other wireless enabled device without having to be connected to a fixed physical link. The main concept involves −

• Mobile communication
• Mobile hardware
• Mobile software

1. Mobile communication

The mobile communication in this case, refers to the infrastructure put in place to ensure that seamless and reliable communication goes on. These would include devices such as protocols, services, bandwidth, and portals necessary to facilitate and support the stated services.

2. Mobile hardware

Mobile hardware includes mobile devices or device components that receive or access the service of mobility. They would range from portable laptops, smartphones, tablet Pc’s, Personal Digital Assistants. These devices will have a receptor medium that is capable of sensing and receiving signals.

3. Mobile software

Mobile software is the actual program that runs on the mobile hardware. It deals with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications. This is the engine of the mobile device. In other terms, it is the operating system of the appliance. It’s the essential component that operates the mobile device.

 

9.2 TYPES OF MOBILE DEVICES

A mobile device is a small, portable electronic gadget that is designed for various types of computing and communication tasks while on the move. These devices are typically handheld and can be easily carried around, allowing users to access information, perform tasks, and communicate from virtually anywhere.

Below are the common types of mobile devices:

1. Smartphones: Smartphones are versatile mobile devices that combine the functions of a mobile phone with those of a computer.
2. Feature Phones: Feature phones are basic mobile phones with limited capabilities.
3. Tablets: They come in various sizes and run on mobile operating systems like iOS or Android.
4. E-Readers: E-readers, such as the Amazon Kindle, are designed for reading digital books and e-books.
5. Laptops: Laptops are portable computers with a keyboard and screen, they are designed for on-the-go computing and are used for tasks that require more processing power and a larger display.
6. 2-in-1 Devices: These devices combine the features of a laptop and a tablet, offering flexibility and versatility. They can function as both a laptop with a physical keyboard and a touchscreen tablet.
7. Smartwatches: Smartwatches are wearable devices that connect to smartphones and offer features such as notifications, health tracking, and voice commands.

 

9.3 USES OF MOBILE DEVICES

1. Communication: Mobile devices are primarily used for making and receiving phone calls.): Users can send and receive text messages for personal and business communication.
2. Internet access: Users can access the internet to browse websites, check emails, access social media, and perform online searches.
3. Mobile apps: Mobile devices run a vast array of applications (apps) for various purposes, including productivity, entertainment, gaming, and utilities.
4. Email and productivity: Mobile devices support email communication and productivity tools, such as document editing, calendar management, and task scheduling.
5. Entertainment: Mobile devices provide entertainment through streaming services for music and video, gaming apps, e-books, and multimedia content.
6. Navigation and maps: Mobile devices with GPS capabilities offer navigation and mapping services, helping users find directions, locate places of interest, and avoid traffic.
7. Social media: Users access social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn to connect with friends and share updates.

 

9.4 OVERVIEW OF MOBILE APPLICATIONS

A mobile app (or mobile application) is a software application developed specifically for use on small, wireless computing devices, such as smartphones and tablets, rather than desktop or laptop computers.

 

Types of mobile applications

1. Mobile gaming applications
2. Educational applications
3. Mcommerce applications
4. Lifestyle applications
5. Entertainment applications
6. Travel applications
7. Utility applications

 

9.5 MOBILE BROWSERS

Mobile browsers are web browsers designed specifically for use on mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. These browsers are optimized for smaller screens and touch interfaces, allowing users to access and interact with web content while on the go. Below are some popular mobile browsers and their features:

1. Google chrome: Available for both Android and iOS devices, Google Chrome is one of the most popular mobile browsers. It offers a user-friendly interface, syncing across devices, and support for extensions.
2. Apple safari: Safari is the default browser on Apple devices running iOS. It is known for its speed, efficiency, and integration with other Apple services.
3. Mozilla firefox: Firefox offers a mobile version for both Android and iOS. It provides strong privacy features, extension support, and syncing capabilities with the desktop version.
4. Microsoft edge: Microsoft Edge is available on both Android and iOS devices. It offers seamless integration with the Windows ecosystem and a “Continue on PC” feature for transferring content between devices.
5. Opera: Opera is known for its data-saving mode, which compresses web pages to reduce data usage. It also includes a built-in ad blocker.
6. Brave: Brave is focused on privacy and security, with built-in ad and tracker blocking. It offers a speedier browsing experience and is available on Android and iOS.

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 10

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

CHAPTER KEY OBJECTIVES

To be able to understand the following;- 1. Elements of information systems 2. Systems theory 3. Types of information systems 4. Personnel involved in systems analysis and design 5. Systems analysis and design concepts 6. Systems development life cycle (SDLC) 7. Requirements elicitation

 

10.1 ELEMENTS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

1. Software

The software gives instructions to the hardware to tell it how to function. It also works by gathering, organizing and manipulating data and then carrying out instructions.

2. Hardware
   Hardware is the computer itself including any routers, monitors, servers, storage devices and printers.
   3. Procedures
   It is often said by computer experts that the procedure element is the same to the people element, what software is to hardware. The procedures element does what it says on the tin, it provides the people with rules, instructions and descriptions for example, a user manual outlining how to use software, hardware or data.
   4. People
   The people who design and operate the software and hardware are probably the most important part of any information system. People determine whether or not an information system is going to succeed or fail.
   5. Data
   Data is sometimes said to be the core part of any information system. Data puts the information into an information system, no matter what type of information that is.
   6. Communication
   This element is sometimes left out, but if an information system needs multiple pieces of hardware then communication is urgently required. With this, computers are allowed to communication with other pieces of hardware. Communication also exists between the people who make the hardware, software etc. which makes it even more important.

 

10.2 SYSTEMS THEORY

Systems theory is a multidisciplinary framework that explores and analyzes complex systems and their interactions within and between various domains. It provides a holistic approach to understanding the components, processes, and behaviors of systems, whether they are natural systems (e.g., ecosystems) or human-made systems (e.g., organizations, information systems).

 

Main parts of an organization system

The primary parts of an organization system are as follows:

1. Individual
2. Formal organization
3. Informal organization
4. Status and roles
5. Physical setting

 

Contributions of the systems theory

1. The systems theory offers an open-system view of an organization and recognizes its environmental interface.
2. The theory is dynamic and adaptive.
3. It adopts a multi-level and multi-dimensional approach. Therefore, it considers both macro and micro aspects.
4. Further, it draws from several disciplines like sociology, economics, psychology, engineering, etc.
5. It is descriptive and not prescriptive or normative, Further, it is probabilistic and not deterministic and places a lot of emphasis on lateral rather than vertical relationships.
6. Cybernetics is another significant contribution to the systems theory. Cybernetics is the science of communication and control in a man-machine system.

 

10.3 TYPES OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

1. Knowledge work system
   There are different knowledge management systems that an organization implements to ensure a continuous flow of new and updated knowledge into the company and its processes. A knowledge work system (KWS) is one of the knowledge management systems that ease the integration of new information or knowledge into the business process.
2. Management information system
   The management information system provides aid to managers by automating different processes that were initially done manually. Business activities like business performance tracking and analysis, making business decisions, making a business plan, and defining workflow.
3. Decision support system
   A decision support system is an information system that analyses business data and other information related to the enterprise to offer automation in decision-making or problem-solving.
4. Office automation system
   An office automation system is an information system that automates different administrative processes like documenting, recording data, and office transactions, among others.
5. Transaction processing system
   The transaction processing system automates the transaction collection, modification, and retrieval process.
6. Executive support system

An Executive Support System or ESS helps top-level executives to plan and control workflow and make business decisions.

 

10.4 PERSONNEL INVOLVED IN SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Several key personnel are involved in the process, each playing a distinct role in ensuring the success of the project. These roles can vary depending on the size and complexity of the project, but here are the primary personnel involved in systems analysis and design:

1. Business analyst: Business analysts are responsible for understanding the organization’s needs and translating them into system requirements.
2. Systems analyst: They take the business requirements provided by the business analyst and design the system architecture, data structures, and workflows. They ensure that the proposed system aligns with the organization’s goals and can be implemented effectively.
3. Project manager: They are responsible for planning the project, allocating resources, setting timelines, and ensuring that the project stays on track and within budget. Project managers also manage communication between team members and stakeholders.
4. Software architect: They make decisions about the system’s architecture, including database design, integration with other systems, and technology stack selection. They ensure that the software components work together seamlessly.
5. Database designer: They create data models, define data relationships, and ensure that the data can be stored, retrieved, and manipulated efficiently.
6. User Interface (UI) and User Experience (UX) Designer: UI/UX designers are responsible for designing the system’s user interface. They create the visual and interactive elements that
7. Programmers/Developers: Developers are responsible for writing the code that implements the system based on the specifications provided by the systems analyst and software architect. They work with various programming languages and technologies to build the system.

 

10.5 SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN CONCEPTS

Systems analysis

System analysis is the process of breaking the system down into its individual components and understanding how each component interacts with the other components to accomplish the system’s overall goal. In this process, the analyst collects the requirements of the system and documents them.

Characteristics 

• It is the study of the existing system to identify the problem areas.
• It is a process of understanding the system requirements and its environment.
• It involves gathering and understanding the user’s requirements.
• It involves analyzing the system in terms of its current and future needs.

Advantages

• It helps to identify the problems and their causes.
• It helps to understand the functional and non-functional requirements of the system.
• It helps to develop better solutions.
• It helps identify the areas of improvement.

Limitations

• It can be time-consuming.
• It can be costly.
• It can be difficult to get accurate information.

 

 Systems design

System design is the process of designing the architecture, components, modules, interfaces, and data for a system to satisfy the specified requirements. It involves the design of the system architecture, components, modules, interfaces, and data.

Characteristics

• It is the process of creating a design for the system.
• It involves the design of the system architecture, components, modules, interfaces, and data.
• It involves identifying the modules and components of the system.
• It involves creating the user interface and database design.

Advantages

• It helps to create an efficient system.
• It helps identify the areas of improvement.
• It helps to reduce the development cost.
• It helps to create a better user experience.

Limitations

• It can be time-consuming.
• It can be costly.
• It can be difficult to get accurate information.

 

10.6 SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SDLC)

The System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) provides a well-structured framework that gives an idea, of how to build a system.

 

10.6.1 DEFINITION OF SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model which includes policies and procedures for developing or altering systems throughout their life cycles.

SDLC is used by analysts to develop an information system. SDLC includes the following activities −

• Requirements
• Design
• Implementation
• Testing
• Deployment
• Operations
• Maintenance

 

10.6.2 PHASES OF SDLC

1. Feasibility study/Planning

1. Define the problem and scope of existing system.
2. Overview the new system and determine its objectives.
3. Confirm project feasibility and produce the project Schedule.
4. During this phase, threats, constraints, integration and security of system are also considered.

2. Analysis and specification

1. Gather, analyze, and validate the information.
2. Define the requirements and prototypes for new system.
3. Evaluate the alternatives and prioritize the requirements.
4. Examine the information needs of end-user and enhances the system goal.

3. System design

1. Includes the design of application, network, databases, user interfaces, and system interfaces.
2. Transform the SRS document into logical structure, which contains detailed and complete set of specifications that can be implemented in a programming language.
3. Create a contingency, training, maintenance, and operation plan.

4. Implementation

1. Implement the design into source code through coding.
2. Combine all the modules together into training environment that detects errors and defects.
3. A test report which contains errors is prepared through test plan that includes test related tasks such as test case generation, testing criteria, and resource allocation for testing.
4. Integrate the information system into its environment and install the new system.

5. Maintenance/Support

1. Include all the activities such as phone support or physical on-site support for users that is required once the system is installing.
2. Implement the changes that software might undergo over a period of time, or implement any new requirements after the software is deployed at the customer location.
3. It also includes handling the residual errors and resolve any issues that may exist in the system even after the testing phase.

 

10.6.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SDLC

Advantages of SDLC

1. Efficient with regard to costs
2. Efficacious in terms of time
3. Enhances teamwork and coordination, defines suitable roles for employees and increases workplace transparency.
4. Minimal danger when the project is implemented

Disadvantages of SDLC

1. The project may take longer and cost more if the planning is not done properly.
2. Correcting problems in code can occasionally take a long time and cause deadlines to be missed if there are many of them.

 

10.7 REQUIREMENTS ELICITATION

Requirements elicitation is the process of gathering and defining the requirements for a software system. The goal of requirements elicitation is to ensure that the software development process is based on a clear and comprehensive understanding of the customer’s needs and requirements.

Requirements elicitation methods

1. Interviews
2. Brainstorming sessions
3. Facilitated Application Specification Technique (FAST)
4. Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
5. Use case approach

Advantages of Requirements Elicitation:

• Helps to clarify and refine customer requirements.
• Improves communication and collaboration between stakeholders.
• Increases the chances of developing a software system that meets customer needs.
• Supports the identification of potential risks and problems early in the development cycle.

Disadvantages of Requirements Elicitation:

• Can be time-consuming and expensive.
• Requires specialized skills and expertise.
• May be impacted by changing business needs and requirements.
• Can be impacted by political and organizational factors.

 

10.7.1 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS

A stakeholder analysis is a process of identifying these people before the project begins; grouping them according to their levels of participation, interest, and influence in the project; and determining how best to involve and communicate each of these stakeholder groups throughout.

Purpose of a Stakeholder Analysis

1. To enlist the help of key organizational players.
2. To gain early alignment among all stakeholders on goals and plans.
3. To help address conflicts or issues early on.

 

10.7.2 NEED FOR REQUIREMENTS GATHERING

Requirements gathering is a critical phase in the software development and project management process. It involves collecting and documenting information about what a project or system needs to achieve and how it should function.

Reasons why requirements gathering is essential:

1. Clarity of purpose: Gathering requirements helps define the project’s purpose, scope, and objectives. It ensures that all stakeholders have a clear and shared understanding of what the project aims to achieve.
2. Stakeholder alignment: Requirements gathering involves input from various stakeholders, such as clients, end-users, and project team members. It helps align their expectations, ensuring that everyone is on the same page.
3. Minimizing miscommunication: Poorly defined or misunderstood requirements can lead to miscommunication and misalignment, which can result in costly rework and project delays.
4. Risk mitigation: By thoroughly understanding the project requirements, potential risks and issues can be identified early in the project lifecycle. This allows for proactive risk mitigation strategies to be developed.
5. Efficiency: Clear and well-documented requirements provide a roadmap for the development team. They know exactly what needs to be built, which reduces the chances of wasted effort or building the wrong features.
6. Cost control: Accurate requirements gathering can help prevent scope creep, where the project’s scope expands beyond its original boundaries. This can save both time and money.

 

10.7.3 PROCESS FOR REQUIREMENTS GATHERING

1. Assign roles and identify stakeholders

The first step in the requirements gathering process is assigning roles to the team members who will be responsible for gathering and analyzing the requirements. This may include a project manager, business analyst, or other team members.

2. Meet with stakeholders and ask questions

Step 2 is about meeting with the stakeholders and asking them questions to better understand their needs and requirements. This may involve conducting interviews, focus groups, surveys, or other techniques to gather information.

3. Gather information to get started on the project

After meeting with stakeholders, the team can gather information to get started on the project. This may include analyzing existing processes, researching industry best practices, and reviewing relevant documentation.

4. List assumptions and requirements goals

Once the team has gathered information, it is essential to list the assumptions and requirements goals for the project. This will include things like the length of the project, the people involved, the budget, and any associated risks.

5. Get approval

After listing the assumptions and requirements goals, it is essential to get approval from stakeholders before moving forward with the project. This may involve presenting the findings to stakeholders and asking for their input and approval.

6. Monitor progress

Finally, it is crucial to monitor progress throughout the project to ensure that your requirements are met and that the project is on track. This may involve regular stakeholder check-ins, progress reports, and other monitoring techniques.

 

10.7.4 REQUIREMENTS GATHERING TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

1. Brainstorming

Brainstorming is used in requirement gathering to get as many ideas as possible from group of people. Generally used to identify possible solutions to problems, and clarify details of opportunities.

2. Document analysis

Reviewing the documentation of an existing system can help when creating AS–IS process document, as well as driving gap analysis for scoping of migration projects.

3. Focus group

A focus group is a gathering of people who are representative of the users or customers of a product to get feedback. The feedback can be gathered about needs/opportunities/ problems to identify requirements, or can be gathered to validate and refine already elicited requirements.

4. Interface analysis

Interfaces for a software product can be human or machine. Integration with external systems and devices is just another interface. User centric design approaches are very effective at making sure that we create usable software.

5. Interview

Interviews of stakeholders and users are critical to creating the great software. Listening is the skill that helps a great analyst to get more value from an interview than an average analyst.

6. Prototyping

Prototyping is a relatively modern technique for gathering requirements. In this approach, you gather preliminary requirements that you use to build an initial version of the solution – a prototype. You show this to the client, who then gives you additional requirements.

 

10.7.5 GAP ANALYSIS

Gap analysis is a strategic planning tool used to assess the difference, or “gap,” between a company’s current performance and its desired performance or goals. This analysis helps organizations identify what they need to do to bridge this gap and reach their objectives. Gap analysis is applied in various areas, such as business processes, performance, information systems, and compliance.

Types of gaps

• Performance gaps
• Profit gaps
• Product gaps
• Manpower gaps

The main purpose of gap analysis is to help organizations develop an understanding of the gaps in their performance so that they can create effective strategies to reduce or eliminate these gaps and achieve organizational goals. It does so by highlighting the organization’s shortcomings as well as its opportunities for growth.

 

10.7.6 PRIORITISATION OF REQUIREMENTS

Requirement prioritization is used in the Software product management for determining which candidate requirements of a software product should be included in a certain release. Requirements are also prioritized to minimize risk during development so that the most important or high risk requirements are implemented first. Several methods for assessing a prioritization of software requirements exist.

 

In requirements management candidate software requirements for a product are gathered and organized. Finally, in the release planning activity, these requirements are prioritized and selected for a release, after which the launch of the software product can be prepared. Thus, one of the key steps in release planning is requirements prioritization.

Prioritization of software requirements is a sub process of the release planning process.

The release planning process consists of the sub processes:

1. Prioritize requirements
2. Select requirements
3. Define release requirements
4. Validate release requirements
5. Prepare launch

 

 

 

CHAPTER 11

LEGAL, ETHICAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS

CHAPTER KEY OBJECTIVES

To be able to understand the following;- 1. Information systems ethical and social concerns 2. The moral dimension of information systems 3. The legal issues in information systems

 

11.1 INFORMATION SYSTEMS ETHICAL AND SOCIAL CONCERNS

Ethical and social concerns in information systems are increasingly important due to the pervasive nature of technology in modern society. These concerns touch on a wide range of issues and have far-reaching implications. Below are some of the ethical and social concerns in information systems:

1. Privacy and data protection

Data privacy: The collection, storage, and use of personal data raise concerns about how individuals’ information is handled. Data breaches and unauthorized access to personal information can result in identity theft and other privacy violations.

Data ownership: Questions arise about who owns and controls personal data, and whether individuals have the right to know how their data is being used and to have it deleted.

2. Surveillance and monitoring

Government surveillance: Concerns about government surveillance programs and the balance between national security and individual privacy. This includes debates around the collection of metadata, bulk data collection, and the use of facial recognition technology.

Corporate surveillance: Companies often collect vast amounts of data about users’ online activities for marketing and other purposes, leading to concerns about the extent of corporate surveillance.

3. Algorithmic bias and discrimination

Concerns about the fairness and transparency of algorithms used in decision-making, such as in hiring, lending, and law enforcement. Biases in algorithms can lead to discrimination against certain groups.

4. Cybersecurity and hacking

Ethical concerns regarding hacking, cyberattacks, and the responsible disclosure of security vulnerabilities. The line between ethical hacking (e.g., penetration testing) and malicious hacking can be blurred.

5. Internet freedom and censorship

Concerns about government censorship and restrictions on internet freedom, as well as debates about the balance between protecting national security and promoting free speech and open access to information.

6. Digital divide

The gap between those who have access to technology and the internet and those who do not, which can exacerbate social and economic inequalities.

7. Social media and mental health:

Concerns about the impact of social media on mental health, including issues like addiction, cyberbullying, and the spread of misinformation.

8. Ethical Use of Artificial Intelligence (AI):

Ethical considerations in the development and use of AI, including the potential for AI to make biased or unethical decisions and the need for transparency in AI decision-ma

 

11.2 THE MORAL DIMENSION OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Information systems have a profound impact on society, and ethical considerations are essential in ensuring that these systems are designed, implemented, and operated in ways that align with values, principles, and the well-being of individuals and communities. Below are some key aspects of the moral dimension of information systems:

1. Privacy and data ethics:

Individuals have a right to control their personal information. Ethical principles demand that organizations and individuals handle personal data with care, obtain informed consent for data collection, and protect data from unauthorized access.

2. Data accuracy and quality:

Ensuring that data used in information systems is accurate, reliable, and of high quality is an ethical imperative. Misleading or inaccurate data can have severe consequences.

3. Security and cybersecurity ethics:

Ethical considerations in the realm of cybersecurity involve safeguarding systems and data from cyberattacks. Ethical hackers and cybersecurity professionals play a vital role in ensuring the security of information systems.

4. Fairness and algorithmic bias:

Ethical concerns regarding algorithms and machine learning models revolve around fairness and bias. Biased algorithms can lead to discrimination, and ethical AI development involves addressing and rectifying these biases.

5. Transparency and accountability:

Information systems should be transparent in their operation. Individuals have a right to understand how decisions are made by automated systems. Organizations should be accountable for their use of technology and the consequences of their decisions.

6. Access and digital divide:

Ensuring equitable access to information systems is an ethical issue. The digital divide, which creates disparities in access to technology and the internet, is a significant concern.

7. Social and environmental responsibility:

Information systems should be developed and operated with a sense of social and environmental responsibility. This includes minimizing energy consumption, reducing electronic waste, and promoting sustainable practices.

7. Ethical use of big data:

The collection and analysis of big data raise ethical questions about privacy, consent, and the responsible use of data for purposes like targeted advertising and decision-making.

 

11.3 THE LEGAL ISSUES IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Legal issues in information systems are of significant concern because the use of technology and information systems has the potential to raise various legal challenges. These issues encompass a wide range of laws and regulations. Here are some of the key legal issues in information systems:

1. Data privacy and protection: Compliance with data protection regulations is a critical issue. Laws like the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) set strict standards for the handling of personal data.
2. Intellectual property rights

Copyright infringement: Protecting and respecting intellectual property, including software, content, and patents, is essential to avoid legal disputes over copyright infringement.

Software licensing: Compliance with software licensing agreements, whether proprietary or open source, is necessary to avoid legal issues related to software use.

Cybersecurity and data breaches

3. Cybersecurity laws: Various laws and regulations mandate cybersecurity measures to protect against data breaches. Failure to implement these measures can result in legal consequences.

Data breach notification laws: Many jurisdictions require organizations to report data breaches promptly and notify affected individuals.

4. E-commerce and consumer protection

Online sales: Laws governing online commerce, consumer protection, and electronic transactions need to be observed. This includes providing accurate product information, transparent pricing, and dispute resolution processes.

5. Regulatory compliance

Industry-specific regulations: Different industries have specific regulations. For instance, healthcare must adhere to the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), while financial institutions are subject to regulations like the Sarbanes-Oxley Act.

6. Electronic signatures and contracts

The legality and enforceability of electronic signatures and contracts are subject to electronic transaction laws.

7. Software patents and intellectual property infringement

Patent infringement, especially in software and technology, can lead to legal disputes. Understanding the patent landscape is crucial for avoiding infringement.

8. Digital identity and authentication

Legal issues regarding the use of digital identity, authentication, and electronic verification in digital transactions and services.